This paper examines four major philosophical perspectives on human nature: Confucianism, the philosophy of Xunzi, the philosophy of Mencius, and the Christian viewpoint. The paper surveys how each tradition addresses whether human beings are inherently good, inherently evil, or something in between, tracing the debate from Confucius's humanist belief in self-improvement through Xunzi's argument that wickedness is innate and must be overcome by education, to Mencius's counterclaim that goodness is indestructible at the core of humanity. The Christian perspective, examined through the Book of Job, frames human nature within questions of suffering, free will, and divine justice. The paper concludes that the Confucian view—recognizing capacity for both good and evil—is the most convincing account.
This study guide is drawn from PaperDue's library of 130,000+ paper examples across 47 subjects.
Throughout history, intelligent human beings have tried to better understand exactly what it is that makes people human. Some of the most frequently asked questions concern a supposed universal human nature — a basic quality that is somehow part of all people regardless of culture, ethnicity, gender, religion, or any other divisive characteristic one might consider. Human nature refers to the capacity to think, to feel, to act and react — all the things that elevate people above the rest of the animal kingdom. Thinkers of all ages have tried to clearly explain and solidify this intangible idea.
Philosophers first questioned whether human nature exists at all, and then further asked whether it is inherently good or inherently evil. Is it part of our innate character to be kind and decent to other human beings, to take care of one another — or does that impulse result from overcoming a more self-preserving human nature? These questions have been asked repeatedly throughout recorded history, and it can logically be assumed they were posed long before written records existed. The answers people give tend to reflect the culture of the person posing them. Every single culture on Earth has a historical perspective on this question. Four of the most significant philosophical perspectives on this issue are Confucianism, the philosophy of Xunzi, the philosophy of Mencius, and the Christian perspective on human nature, each of which postulates the inherent goodness or lack thereof within humanity.
Confucianism is the philosophical and ethical system of belief based upon the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It completely transformed the philosophical, psychological, and sociological perspective of many Chinese people, including leaders of the country who adopted it as their personal philosophy. In all of Confucius's recorded statements and writings, he directly addressed the issue of human nature only once, in The Analects of Confucius: "The Master said, 'By nature, men are nearly alike; by practice, they get to be wide apart'" (Waley 55).
The core belief of Confucianism is humanism — the idea that human beings can change, adapt, and grow, but only through self-improvement. No one's identity or personality is fixed, and anyone can learn from their mistakes and develop into a better person according to the five virtues of humaneness, righteousness, etiquette, knowledge, and integrity (Runes 338). This also means that social position is an archaic concept, because in a meritocracy the virtuous should rise in society while those who behave poorly should not, regardless of financial position. People are expected to make decisions using reason, logic, and critical thinking in all areas of life. Most practitioners of Confucianism hold that the purpose of human existence is to become the best version of oneself that a person can aspire to (Ames 30). Whether or not this runs counter to human nature is considered beside the point; a person is tasked in life with overcoming individual faults in order to become a person of value.
According to Confucius, certain characteristics were consistent across all of human nature — namely, that mankind is social and that interactions with other human beings are directly connected to a person's ability or inability to reach their full potential. Confucius further stated that human beings are innately good and want to do what is right for themselves and for the rest of humanity, but that people also have the capacity for evil. Both impulses exist within a person, and the individual's choices matter far more than what is merely innate (Bevir 272). The ethical definition of good or evil was of primary concern, as opposed to religious ideas of sin or grace. A person's responsibility is to respect themselves, other people, and their ancestors, and the burden rests entirely on the individual and his or her choices.
Confucianism places great importance on each unique person and their decisions. If good and evil exist in the world, it is because people have failed to live up to their potential. Everyone begins life with the same characteristics and the same potential, and the success or failure of a person to live up to their ideal is entirely their own responsibility. According to this perspective, all people begin with the same chance to be good or to be wicked, and the results of their actions ultimately determine their development.
Xunzi was a Confucian philosopher who held a considerably more negative view of human nature than other philosophers of his era. Rather than innately good, Xunzi hypothesized that human beings are actually inherently wicked and that their natural impulses must be overcome through socialization and education (Cua). For a long time, Xunzi was regarded as a minor philosopher, and it is only through more recent scholarly efforts that his relevance to the question of human nature has become widely recognized. He argued that education — which Confucius identified as a necessary component of human endeavor and the only path to social and ethical advancement — was in fact needed precisely to overcome our human nature. This does not mean that human beings enjoy committing evil actions, but that it is human nature to resort to deception or wrongdoing in order to advance one's own position. As Philip Ivanhoe explains:
"Human nature is bad, but this should not be read as saying that people naturally delight in evil. Rather, his point is that people lack any inborn guide to right conduct, and that without the external restraint of ritual they will fall into wrongdoing and be reduced to a chaotic, impoverished state… Since we are not inclined to virtue by nature, the process of self-transformation will be slow and difficult" (Ivanhoe 256).
When a person is born, they do not understand what is morally right or wrong. They are driven by desire, inclination, and instinct. It is only through the process of aging and development that people come to understand what society expects of them. Education — both in terms of knowledge and in terms of social expectation and morality — allows individuals to become good people. Those who have been denied education will ultimately retain their innate tendency toward wrongdoing and will be more likely to commit acts of wickedness against others. Beyond education, other factors also prevent human beings from becoming good (Machle 162). A single life is full of distractions that inhibit a person from acting rightly: physical desires, financial ambitions, social cravings, and the many other things a person yearns for. By striving after these things rather than focusing on self-improvement, people effectively prevent themselves from reaching their full potential as defined by Confucian philosophy.
"Mencius claims humans are irreducibly good by nature"
"Book of Job frames goodness, evil, and divine justice"
Dunn, J. & Rogerson, J. Eerdmans' Commentary on the Bible. Cambridge, U.K.: Eerdmans Publishing, 2003. Print.
Habel, N. The Book of Job. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1985. Print.
Hartley, J.E. The Book of Job. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing, 1988. Print.
Hooke, S.H. The Bible in Basic English. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1982. Print.
Hubbard, R. "The go'el in ancient Israel: theological reflections on an Israelite institution." Bulletin for Biblical Research. 1991. 3–19. Print.
Ivanhoe, Philip J., and Bryan W. Van Norden. "Mozi," in Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy, ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2001. 55–107. Print.
Machle, Edward J. Nature and Heaven in the Xunzi: A Study of the Tian lun. SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993. Print.
Runes, Dagobert D. Dictionary of Philosophy. Philosophical Library, 1983. Print.
Van Norden, Bryan. The Essential Mengzi: Selected Passages with Traditional Commentary. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2009. Print.
Waley, Arthur. The Analects of Confucius. CreateSpace Independent, 2013. eBook.
You’re 42% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 2 sections.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.