Human Sacrifice in Incan, Moche, and Wari Cultures

Overview of Pre-Columbian Andean Civilizations

Peru's first known cultures date back over 20,000 years and have left strong marks on the country. One of the most important known groups is the Chavín civilization, one of the earliest in Peru and also the first known building culture. After the decline of the Chavín culture, several regional cultures emerged. The most famous are the Paracas and Nazca civilizations, whose legacy includes the mysterious Nazca Lines, among the highlights of Peru. Both civilizations are remembered for their great artistic and technological skills.

Farther north, the Moche people flourished over a relatively long period between 100 B.C. and 850 A.D. Although they controlled only a small portion of Peru, the Moche people's mastery of architectural and artistic techniques made them one of the most influential cultures in the history of Peru. It is still possible to observe their tremendous cultural contribution outside the modern city of Trujillo.

The Moche culture, located on the north coast of Peru, was named after the valley of the river that was the center of this civilization, together with the Virú and Chicama valleys. At the height of their expansion, the influence of the Moche culture extended along a coastal strip approximately 250 kilometers long — from the Leche valley in the north to the Nepeña valley in the south. During this period, the population grew enormously, and within these valleys people formed a unified political organization. Control of vital irrigation infrastructure was fundamental to political power. A tight integration also existed between religious practice and political authority (Thousand Years Inka Gold, 2011, p. 2).

The Wari Empire existed from approximately 500 to 1100 A.D. The Wari empire was established around 600 A.D. and at its height extended over 1,500 kilometers across the territory of present-day Peru. Sweeping changes in social, political, and religious life accompanied the spread of Wari culture, reflected in shifting settlement patterns, new forms of architecture, expanding infrastructure, and new burial rituals. Centuries later, the Incas adopted a great number of Wari reforms for their own empire (Thousand Years Inka Gold, 2011, p. 1).

The Inca culture flourished from approximately 1438 to 1532 A.D. — a period of fewer than 90 years as a unified state drawing together many previously independent peoples. The historical significance of the Inca rulers rested on their ability to govern many different cultures while allowing those cultures to retain their own identities, with some exceptions. The rulers also organized a stable and economically productive supply empire (Thousand Years Inka Gold, 2011, p. 2). When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in South America, the Inca commanded the largest, richest, and most isolated empire of native America. Centuries before the growth of the Inca state, however, the ancient peoples of the Andes had already created an extraordinarily rich and diverse heritage of cultures, establishing many of the traditions that give the Andean region its unique character today (Goldstein, 2003, p. 1).

The Role of Sacrifice in Moche and Inca Religious Life

Descriptions of human sacrifice by the Inca and other native peoples of Andean South America are scattered throughout many early colonial-period Spanish chronicles and histories. These are not eyewitness accounts, but are generally secondhand descriptions provided by native informants. Unlike in Mexico, where human sacrifice was witnessed directly by Spanish soldiers and priests in the early sixteenth century, written accounts from Peru generally describe religious practices that predated the conquest of the Inca empire (Benson & Gwynn Cook, 2001, p. 165).

All evidence confirms that human sacrifice was a central part of Moche religious belief. The now well-known "Warrior Narrative" and "Sacrifice Scene" provide key entry points into the lexicon of Moche visual vocabulary, because the characters depicted correspond closely to archaeologically known figures. These scenes indicate that Moche leadership involved the procurement of prisoners for ritual sacrifice (Jackson, 2008, p. 17).

Human and animal sacrifices were practiced by the Incas and earlier Andean indigenous cultures only on important occasions. Many sacrifices were simple, daily rituals performed at sunrise to celebrate the sun's appearance. For example, a fire would be lit and corn tossed into it, accompanied by prayers encouraging Inti, the sun god, to receive the offering and acknowledge the Incas as his children.

The Incas had also developed an elaborate calendar based on the cyclical patterns of nature and the observation of the stars. The calendar is said to have aided in predicting weather and was therefore useful to crop cultivation. On the first day of every lunar month, 100 llamas were driven into Huayaca Pata, the central square in Cuzco. The animals were presented before images of the nature gods and assigned to 30 priests, each representing one day of the month. The llamas were then killed, their flesh thrown into the fire and their bones ground for other rituals. At these events, people would offer woven garments to the fire. It is said that the Inca ruler wore his poncho only once: it was sacrificed to the sun god each day (Raggio, 2003, p. 1).

Capacocha: Child Sacrifice and the Ice Mummies

"Beautiful beyond belief" is how one Spanish chronicler described Tanta Carhua — a ten-year-old girl whose father had offered her to the Inca ruler as a Capacocha (also written Capac Hucha) sacrifice. She was led to Cuzco by priests, where she met the Inca Emperor. On the procession to the mountain where she would be killed, her entourage — consisting of priests, witnesses to the sacrifice, porters carrying food, and llamas — passed through her home town. According to the account, Tanta Carhua told the villagers: "You can finish with me now because I could not be more honored than by the feasts which they celebrated for me in Cuzco." Before she was killed, she was fed and given chicha to drug her, and was then buried alive. She thus became a goddess, and the mountain was named after her.

"Juanita," also called the "Ice Maiden," is another example of a sacrificial girl. She was found in 1995 by Johan Reinhard at the summit of Ampato, a peak situated north of Cuzco, the Inca capital. Reinhard noted that Juanita has a skull fracture at the back of her head. Whether these children were sacrificed violently remains debated. Reinhard believes the victims were rendered unconscious by a blow delivered against a cloth held at the back of their heads, so that they would not fully experience the cold and harsh conditions when buried. These children were apparently feasted and elaborately dressed for the occasion.

Another mummy discovered by Reinhard's expedition — named Sarita — was found wrapped not only in fine clothing but also in an outer garment typically worn by males. This has been interpreted as the child carrying dress for her future husband in the afterlife. It is also possible the garment was offered by the male officiating priest, or that her father gave it to her as protection for her journey to the other world.

Juanita was exceptionally well preserved because she was an "ice mummy." Most of her hair, skin, and stomach contents remained intact, as did her sumptuous clothing. DNA studies were conducted to determine her ethnic origins, and the contents of her stomach were analyzed to learn more about the Inca diet.