Islamic Fundamentalism and the Iranian Revolution

Introduction

For the past three decades, Iran has developed as an Islamic fundamentalist state that has constantly suppressed dissent. While various leaders have attempted to establish secularization in recent years, these efforts have consistently been repressed because they promote dissenting views and liberalize people's lifestyles. The development of Iran as an Islamic fundamentalist state has largely been shaped by Islamic fundamentalism during the Iranian Revolution. Islamic fundamentalism not only played a significant role in the Iranian Revolution but also demonstrated how religion can be utilized as a tool for political mobilization. It was characterized by the use of various strategies by Ayatollah Khomeini, which contributed to the overthrow of the then-existing Iranian leadership.

Background of the Iranian Revolution

The Iranian Revolution, commonly known as the Islamic Revolution, refers to the incidents and events that contributed to the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, who led the Pahlavi dynasty. Mohammad Reza Shah, who was supported by the United States, was ultimately replaced by an Islamic republic following these events. The establishment of Iran as an Islamic republic was led by Ayatollah Khomeini, the revolution's leader, and supported by several Islamic organizations and student movements. The Iranian Revolution resulted in the establishment of the country as an Islamic republic because it challenged the cultural hegemony of Western ideas and acted as a substitute to the social lifestyles of Iranians.²

Prior to the Iranian Revolution, Mohammad Reza Shah was firmly established as Iran's dictatorial ruler after a successful coup d'état sponsored by the CIA that overthrew Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. This was followed by an era of martial law that lasted four years and the Baghdad Pact, which promoted close relationships between Iran and the West. These events drew Iran into close relations with the United States and its military and economic assistance. The government then launched an elite-based modernization program commonly known as the White Revolution. This program enhanced the arbitrariness of Shah's regime, alienating some Islamic religious and political groups as well as people who sought democratic reforms. The United States' intervention in the 1953 coup ended the nationalist challenge posed by Mossadegh and established American dominance in the Middle East.³

The origins of the Iranian Revolution lie in the autocracy of the Pahlavi dynasty under Mohammad Reza Shah. This leadership was not only autocratic but also focused on Westernization and modernization while disregarding religion and democratic principles enshrined in the country's constitution. During his reign, Reza substituted Islamic laws with Western ones, establishing regulations that contradicted Islamic practices — such as laws governing clothing and the veiling of women. Shah's adoption of Western laws was driven by the maintenance of close ties with America, fueled by a mutual fear of and opposition to Soviet expansion. Additional factors that contributed to the Iranian Revolution included a considerable decline in oil revenues in 1975, which provoked economic crisis, rising economic disparities, and wage cuts. These factors generated widespread discontent that ultimately led to the toppling of Shah's regime.

The Iranian Revolution was characterized by nationwide religious protests that drew the participation and support of a large portion of the discontented population. These protests played a crucial role in the overthrow of Shah's regime and the establishment of an Islamic republic. The revolution entailed the mobilization of the poor and the working class, and anti-Shah protests grew from weekly to daily events. This mobilization culminated in demonstrations by approximately two million people in Tehran in September 1978 — one of the largest protests in world history. Shah's regime responded by enforcing martial law, during which over 2,000 people were killed. The protests became a massive show of force that generated subsequent strikes. As martial law threatened to suppress the movement, oil workers initiated further strikes that brought Iran to a standstill. The revolution gained new momentum as workers took over offices, educational institutions, factories, and hospitals across the country. The protests and strikes eventually culminated in the overthrow of Shah's regime and the establishment of Ayatollah Khomeini's Islamic republic.

Role of Islamic Fundamentalism in the Iranian Revolution

One of the most influential factors in the Iranian Revolution was Islamic fundamentalism, since the protests were religion-led. Islamic fundamentalism significantly contributed to the eventual overthrow of Mohammad Reza Shah and the development of Iran as an Islamic republic. During the Iranian Revolution, Islam emerged as a new liberating force among many people in the Middle East. Islamic fundamentalism, commonly known as political Islam, is a political movement comprising groups and organizations that utilize Islamic theology as part of their aspirations for state power.⁴

Generally, Islamic fundamentalism or political Islam embraces two differing approaches: progressive or reactionary. The progressive approach asserts that Islamic tenets are in line with contemporary values such as democracy and freedom. In contrast, the reactionary approach promotes revolt against historical or political regimes. The reactionary approach was embraced during the early phase of the Islamic society's effort to change the course of history. From a political perspective, Islamic fundamentalism has presented both progressive and reactionary approaches depending on the specific goals to be accomplished.

In Iran, Islamic fundamentalism adopted a reactionary approach against the existing regime. It provided a means through which the working class and the poor could be mobilized in opposition to autocratic rule. During this period, Islamic fundamentalism provided the ideological basis for the people's reaction against the seemingly oppressive Shah regime. Iranians reacted against Shah's rule because his government had enacted laws that suppressed Islamic practices. These actions provided a foundation upon which opponents of Shah's regime could mobilize and protest in order to establish an Islamic republic. Therefore, one of the key roles of Islamic fundamentalism in the Iranian Revolution was its provision of a reactionary framework against Shah's repressive laws and practices.

Prior to the Iranian Revolution, Iran was among the most prominent pro-Western countries in the Middle East. The country's strong ties with the West contributed to the enactment of Western policies and the suppression of Islamic laws. As a result of these Western-oriented policies, Iran repressed the demands of local workers and kept oil production costs low.⁵ The suppression of Islamic laws and practices fueled widespread dissent as many Iranians grew dissatisfied with the dictatorial leadership of Mohammad Reza Shah.

The dictatorial tendencies of Shah's regime deepened public dissatisfaction through rising unemployment, inflation, and widespread corruption. A second key role of Islamic fundamentalism in the Iranian Revolution was the rejection of modernization. A group of Muslim clerics led by Ayatollah Khomeini mobilized the public on the basis of Islamic ideology, blaming the influence of foreigners and the West on Iran's governance. These clerics urged the public to reject the modernization that had transformed the cultural and political life of Iranians, arguing that the changes modernization had brought were the root of the country's troubles.

During this process, the Muslim clerics grounded their opposition to the government and their rejection of modernization in the basic tenets of Islam.⁶ This gave them a mechanism for justifying and legitimizing their claim to power, their goal of overthrowing Shah, and their aspiration to govern. Islamic fundamentalism thus served as an avenue for rejecting modernization by grounding opposition in Islamic values. This challenge to the cultural hegemony of Western ideas made Islamic fundamentalism emerge as a substitute social model and way of life.

A third role of Islamic fundamentalism in the Iranian Revolution was acting as a more potent mobilizer of political action than secular ideologies. While the Iranian population was already dissatisfied with the autocratic leadership of Mohammad Reza Shah, Islamic fundamentalism provided the motivation necessary for mass political action. In doing so, the Iranian Revolution demonstrated how religion can be a far more powerful mobilizer of mass political engagement than secular alternatives.

It is highly likely that without Islamic fundamentalism, the Iranian Revolution would not have occurred. Despite widespread discontent with Shah's dictatorial tendencies, people did not mobilize in large numbers until Islamic values were incorporated into the movement. The use of religious values generated the necessary impetus for mass mobilization and engaged the public in demonstrations and strikes against the existing leadership.

Conclusion

The Iranian Revolution is a defining event in Iran's history that fundamentally transformed the country's political and governance direction. The revolution resulted in the replacement of a dictatorial monarchy with an Islamic government. This significant transformation was shaped by various factors, including the dictatorial tendencies of Shah's regime. However, Islamic fundamentalism and Khomeini's charismatic influence were the central driving forces behind the Iranian Revolution.