Japanese Aggression Against China in the 19th Century

Introduction

The antagonistic foreign relations between China and Japan during the 19th century were a function of many factors that ultimately resulted in the weakening of China and the strengthening of Japan. There is little doubt that the factors which precipitated Japan's aggression against China were as much a product of Japanese opportunism as they were a response to European influence and Russian expansionism on China. Thus the relationship between the two Asian nations is a complex tapestry involving threads from many other nations, both regional and global.

The growing aggression that Japan displayed, particularly during the latter portions of the 19th century, was significant and represented a major shift in the region. Yet the changes that occurred between the two countries were simply a prelude to the imperial might that Japan would display in the 20th century. To understand what led to the breakdown in civil relations and the ultimate change of regional hegemony, it is not only important to examine the aggressive acts that took place in China, but also to consider the factors within China itself that created the strategic opening for Japan's success.

The latter stages of the Tokugawa period, ending in 1867, had lasted for more than 250 years and had seen ten emperors come and go. As the 1800s passed the mid-century mark, the strength of China ebbed and flowed while foreign interests and influences in the nation heightened. This paper presents the influencing conditions in China, the key events that increased tensions between Japan and China, and some of the major acts of Japanese aggression toward China. Through the presentation of these factors, the relationship between these two major Asian nations during the 19th century should become evident, as well as the motivations behind the actions taken by Japan against its western neighbor.

Influencing Conditions in China

Feudal China during the Manchu period was defined by the rise of the Ch'ing dynasty, which was consumed with self-preservation and the maintenance of power. These characteristics may have played a role not only in shaping the years in which the dynasty held sway, but may also have contributed to its eventual defeat. During the Manchu period, China experienced impressive cultural and demographic growth, as well as territorial expansion. However, toward the end of the period, the feudal system was unable to contain the growing unrest in the country. Much of the dissatisfaction among the masses resulted from famines and floods, which led to considerable strife. This turmoil caused significant instability and gave rise to several rebellions, such as the Taiping and Nien rebellions toward the end of the Manchu dynasty. These rebellions weakened the nation and created a vulnerability of the Chinese state that had not previously existed.

Before the problems that so significantly impacted China's ability to feed its people, the nation was already confronted with conflicts stemming from European powers. For years the English had benefited from a triangular trade involving tea, opium, and silver, which caused a dramatic level of addiction and corruption within China. "The Ming adherents who took Formosa from the Dutch learned from them the smoking of the drug as an antidote to malaria and passed the habit on to their fellow countrymen on the mainland… The habit soon became a racial as well as a social menace to China and the attention of the Court was drawn to it."¹ For many in the Chinese government, the opium trade was a detestable enterprise that was not only harming Chinese citizens but also devaluing the currency. Efforts to stop the importation of opium proved unsuccessful, and eventually a thriving indigenous opium trade grew up within China's borders. In time, the opium issue led to wars with England and France, further weakening China.

The Opium Wars were not necessarily the beginning of the new era in China that Western scholars often assign them to be.² However, as Hsü has also noted, there is a great deal to be gained from examining the development of 19th-century China in the context of these wars. In particular, these conflicts are important when considering how French and English relations were affected by China's efforts to disrupt the flow of opium. Symbolically, with the fall of the Old Summer Palace during the Second Opium War — commonly referred to as the Arrow War — the end of the feudal Manchu dynasty was all but complete. By that point in history, a British embassy had been established in Beijing, and the toleration of Christianity was being imposed on China as part of the terms ending hostilities.

The result of the Opium Wars was that China was left desperately searching for a way to regain its lost strength. Paradoxically, many of the steps China took to recover were drawn from Western models. With the introduction of expanded trade, the opening of mines, and increased diplomacy with Western nations, China had begun to advance. However, these measures were so wholly unfamiliar that many Ch'ing officials never fully maximized their potential and refused to modernize entirely. In fact, the vitality of Sino-foreign relations was effectively curtailed after the Treaty of Tientsin in 1868, leaving China in a state of suspended development that further opened the way for Japanese aggression.

The influence of the West, and China's preoccupation with the consequences of Western intervention, left the nation vulnerable in many ways. "The intrusion of the West can be construed as a kind of catalyst, precipitating traditional China into its modern counterpart."³ While China grappled with internal strife and international wars, Japan dealt with its own feudal problems but also eyed the opportunities presenting themselves with respect to China and Chinese territory. A series of events both encouraged and enabled Japan to take aggressive action against China, altering the relationship between the nations and shifting the balance of power in the region.

Conclusion

The efforts made by the Japanese were not solely directed at the Chinese, nor were they simply a matter of a thirst for conquest. The Meiji philosophy that was dominant in Japan at the time of the Sino-Japanese War did emphasize growth and colonization, but there was a considerable threat that the Japanese perceived in having such a weakened Chinese neighbor. It could be argued that the actions taken by the Japanese were as much defensive as they were offensive. One significant motivation for the aggression was concern over Russian expansion, which threatened to extend into much of China and Korea. The Japanese viewed the growing Russian power as a threat that could eventually reach their own shores — a condition they could not allow to go unchecked.