This paper critically examines Kotter's eight-stage model of organizational change, evaluating each stage in sequence before assessing the model holistically. Beginning with Lewin's three-stage model as a foundational reference point, the paper traces how Kotter expanded this framework to address urgency creation, coalition building, vision development, communication, obstacle removal, short-term wins, consolidation, and cultural entrenchment. The analysis acknowledges the model's broad applicability and flexibility across organizational contexts while identifying key omissions, including insufficient guidance for handling resistant employees, the absence of explicit monitoring mechanisms during implementation, and limited accommodation of individual differences in response to change.
The development of change models to support the way that management undertakes organizational change may be seen as a useful advancement, providing a framework from which change may be understood and therefore actively managed. One of the first models of change was proposed by Lewin (1951, p. 22), which presented a relatively simple format for managing change made up of three stages: unfreezing, the change itself, and then refreezing. It may be argued that this has formed the basis of many subsequent change models, which have built on this foundation and expanded the concept.
For example, the well-known eight-stage change model by Kotter (1996, p. 33) may be seen as drawing considerable inspiration from this simple predecessor. Kotter's model has been argued to be one of the most comprehensive change management frameworks, facilitating consideration of many different aspects associated with change — including how it is prepared for, how it takes place, and how it is entrenched following implementation (By, 2005, p. 369). When examining Kotter's model, a good starting point is to consider the individual stages before assessing the model in a holistic manner.
The first stage of Kotter's model is to create a sense of urgency (Kotter, 1996, p. 35). It is argued that without a sense of urgency there will be an absence of motivation, which is required for change to take place. This may be seen as aligned with the first stage of Lewin's unfreezing process — preparing employees for change (Lewin, 1951, p. 22). Kotter (1996, p. 9) notes that employees will often prefer the status quo, even where they are unhappy with it. This view is supported by other theorists, including Peter Senge, who argues that employees are conditioned to resist change (Senge, 2006, p. 12).
Urgency must be created by ensuring that employees understand why the change needs to occur. This understanding is likely to increase employees' acceptance of change, even where it is not welcomed. For example, unions cooperated with General Motors (GM) when the firm faced difficulties and needed to reduce employee working hours (Newman, 2008, p. 1). Likewise, pilots at Delta accepted a deal from the company that included a pay cut, understanding that the company was facing significant financial difficulties (Field, 2004, p. 13). The ability to create urgency relies on effective communication from management and should incorporate honest and open dialogue (Kotter, 1996, p. 35). Only after this stage has been completed should the next stage be tackled.
The second stage is the creation of a "powerful guiding coalition" (Kotter, 1996, p. 51). This concerns the way in which management and leadership need to be seen as supporting the decision, as support for change is likely to emanate downward through the organization. A number of change models similarly argue for the importance of leadership in guiding change and acting as a centre of influence (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010, p. 22; Dervitsiotis, 1998, p. 109). This leads naturally to the third stage, which Kotter identifies as the need to create a vision and strategy for the change (Kotter, 1996, p. 67). This builds on the former stages and includes determining the goals of the change and the desired outcomes, the means by which these will be achieved, and communicating this vision to employees. Employees also need to see leaders themselves as enthusiastic and committed to the change (Kotter, 1996, p. 69).
The fourth stage is the communication of that vision (Kotter, 1996, p. 85), which may be undertaken through a one-to-one or one-to-many communication strategy. During this stage it is critical that the actions as well as the words of management are seen to support the change (Kotter, 1996, p. 85). This is supported by almost all comparable models (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010, p. 22; McCallum, 1997, p. 73). Simonson (2005, p. 7) notes that when employees do not perceive leadership as committed and enthusiastic about the vision, leadership effectively sends a message that the change is not important — a message which undermines the need for change altogether.
The first four stages may be seen as preparation stages, broadly aligned with Lewin's unfreezing phase, helping to remove obstacles or barriers to change. The fifth stage is the explicit removal of obstacles and the empowerment of employees to undertake the change (Kotter, 1996, p. 101). In some cases obstacles may be practical, such as ensuring there are sufficient resources, but in many instances they may be less tangible. Kotter, in line with other theorists, appears to advocate the need to win over support in order to overcome resistance. However, others such as Dervitsiotis (1998, p. 109) do not shy away from the less pleasant potential need to discipline, reassign, or in extreme cases dismiss employees who cannot be brought on board. When the first four stages have been effective, Kotter aligns with a number of other models in suggesting that employers and employees may be seen as operating in cooperation, with the change viewed as belonging to everyone rather than to management alone (Collins, 2001, p. 249).
"Short-term wins, consolidation, and cultural embedding"
"Flexibility praised; key omissions identified"
Overall, Kotter's model can be seen as well-developed and highly comprehensive, but it is unlikely to be perfect. It is doubtful that any single model will ever be able to provide for all management requirements during change while remaining operationally viable as a practical framework. Nevertheless, Kotter's eight-stage model remains one of the most widely referenced and applied frameworks in organizational change management, offering meaningful guidance across the full arc of the change process.
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