The Lost Colony of Roanoke: What Happened in 1587?

Introduction: A Colony That Vanished

The beginnings of European settlement in the Americas are often traced to the Puritans and the founding of the colony at Plymouth. Yet there was a much earlier settlement primarily composed of civilians: the colony of Roanoke, Virginia. Roanoke was founded in 1587 by John White.¹ White left the colony to obtain more resources and colonists from England and was delayed for three years due to Britain's war with Spain. When he arrived back on Virginian soil, the entire colony of more than a hundred inhabitants had completely vanished. The name of a native tribe — "Croatoan" — was carved on a post.² The colony had been plagued by hunger and poor relations with the native population and had apparently fallen victim to some natural or manmade disaster. But what?

What White Found Upon His Return

It was unclear where the colonists had gone, based upon White's scan of the environment. The settlement did not appear to have been attacked, as the colonists' structures had been taken down in an apparently orderly fashion. The carved message would seem to indicate that the tribe had relocated to Croatoan Island, some 50 miles to the south of the original colony.³ There were also tribes sympathetic to the British in that area, and it was assumed that the colonists had perhaps relocated to find assistance from one of those tribes, or to flee from a tribe hostile to the British. But although White attempted to retrace their steps, it proved impossible. There was no evidence that the colonists had reached the Croatoan Islands or resettled anywhere along the way.

According to the instructions White had left with them, the colonists were supposed to carve the name of wherever they had gone. If they had been forced to flee under threat, they were to carve a Maltese cross. No cross was found carved anywhere. They were also told to leave all valuables buried underground; once again, none were found.

Theories of Assimilation with Native Tribes

It is possible that the colonists did relocate and were assimilated into a native tribe that subsequently vacated the area.⁴ Evidence for this can be found in records of the period: in 1608, John Smith wrote that the Indians reported to him of people who looked like him. George Percy, another colonist, reported seeing a white boy with blonde hair among the Indians.⁵ This theory is consistent with evidence found in James Horn's 2011 overview of the colony, Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke. There is also some tenuous supporting evidence in the greater technological sophistication of tools used by certain native groups after the period of the colony's dispersal, which may indicate contact with European cultures and the assimilation of European metalworking and other technologies.⁶

According to the instructions left with them by White, the colonists were supposed to carve the name of where they had gone — and if they had been forced to flee in danger, they should carve a Maltese cross. No cross was found. They were also told to leave all valuables underground; once again, none were to be found. The absence of these signals complicates all theories of a forced or emergency departure and leaves the question of assimilation among the most plausible remaining explanations.

The Origins of Roanoke and English Colonial Ambitions

The Roanoke colony was the second attempt to establish a permanent English settlement in the New World. The first attempt occurred in 1585, led by Sir Walter Ralegh, who gave Virginia its name in honor of the Virgin Queen, his patron Elizabeth I. "Ralegh had taken care to provide expert reporting of the venture, which he used to attract investment — and hopefully royal support — for later settlement," although the waters proved too shallow to support warships, as had been hoped.⁹ John White had accompanied Ralegh because of his reputation as an artist at court. "White made for him watercolour drawings of the flora, fauna and native peoples of North America that remain our best images from the Age of Exploration."¹⁰ White's drawings effectively became a public relations campaign to encourage the Queen to fund settlements in the New World.

As testimony to the Crown's commitment to establishing settlements in the Americas, the fact that White was commissioned to make drawings indicates the level of interest in creating colonies and their relative importance in the European balance of power. Britain saw itself in a race for exploration and settlement with other major European powers, including Spain. Constructing successful New World settlements was part of the contest for conquest during the Age of Exploration. Britain also drew up navigational charts and conducted research on native languages before sending men and women to begin a settlement in the region.¹¹

Conclusion: The Legacy of Roanoke's Disappearance

Today, the reasons for investigating the fate of Roanoke have more to do with answering a compelling historical mystery than with the urgent search once conducted by White. There are many plausible explanations for the colony's failure — ones that were also manifested in other failed settlements of the era — including Indian attacks, starvation, disease, and a lack of practical knowledge among the inhabitants. Reports of European-appearing individuals among certain Indian groups, and the presence of European metals and technologies within some tribes, suggest that at least some colonists may have survived by assimilating into native communities. Some colonists may have endured but were absorbed quickly enough into wandering native tribes to be lost to history. If nothing else, the fragility of the Roanoke settlement makes the ultimate survival and growth of later colonial settlements in the Americas all the more remarkable.