Major Theories of Career Development Explained

Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)

The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) was developed in 1964 by René Dawis, George England, and Lloyd Lofquist at the University of Minnesota. TWA is a comprehensive model of work and job adjustment based on the concept of correspondence between an individual and his or her environment. Dawis and Lofquist (1964) defined work adjustment as the process of achieving and maintaining that correspondence. The work environment requires someone who can perform its tasks, and the individual brings knowledge and skills to fulfill those requirements. In return, the individual expects compensation for his or her performance and a safe place to work.

The central idea of this model is that both the environment and the individual must meet each other's requirements in order to maintain their relationship. The degree to which both sets of requirements are met is called the correspondence. If an individual's abilities closely correspond with the requirements of the work environment, that individual will be perceived as satisfactory. Similarly, if the compensation corresponds to the individual's expectations, he or she will be satisfied with the environment. TWA consists of two models: a predictive model and a process model.

The predictive model of TWA focuses on the variables that help determine whether individuals are satisfied with their work environments and whether individuals are satisfactory to those environments. The results obtained through these variables help predict the tenure of the individual within the work environment.

The process model enhances the work adjustment model's ability to explain how adjustment occurs and is maintained over time. It focuses on how the fit between individuals and their work can be sustained. TWA suggests that an individual's adjustment style determines how he or she behaves under conditions of dis-correspondence — a situation in which either the individual or the environment is not satisfied with the other. Adjustment style consists of four variables: flexibility, active adjustment, reactive adjustment, and perseverance (Brown & Lent, 2013).

TWA describes the relationship between an individual and his or her work environment. This theory is particularly helpful for counselors assisting clients in choosing a profession that matches their needs and preferences. When applied to a work setting, TWA reveals the level of correspondence between employee and employer. If both parties maintain a successful relationship — that is, if the employer is satisfied with the employee's performance and the employee is satisfied with the compensation received — the correspondence will be high. Conversely, if the employer and employee are not satisfied with each other, the correspondence will be low.

According to Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice (1997), people prefer to choose jobs and environments that allow them to use their skills and abilities, demonstrate their competencies, and enjoy their roles. People generally prefer to work in environments populated by others who are similar to themselves.

Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice

According to Holland, vocational choice or interest is an expression of personality. He identified six personality types, collectively known as the RIASEC model, and argued that most people fit primarily into one of these types:

Each of these six personality types is associated with certain preferences for vocational activities. Holland further noted that when individuals of the same personality type work together, they create an environment that rewards their shared characteristics. As a result, people who choose to work in environments that match their personality type tend to be more successful and more satisfied with their jobs.

In addition to the RIASEC model, Holland proposed four diagnostic indicators that help predict an individual's career choice, performance, and level of satisfaction. These four constructs are congruence, differentiation, consistency, and identity.

Congruence holds a central role in Holland's theory. It refers to the degree of fit between an individual's personality and the work environment in which he or she works (Ireh, 2000). Congruence is essentially the match between the environment and one of the six personality types described by Holland.

Differentiation is the degree to which an individual's interests or desired work environment are clearly defined. An individual's interests are considered well-differentiated when he or she can clearly distinguish between personal likes and dislikes.

Consistency refers to the degree of relatedness among an individual's interests within the hexagonal arrangement of the RIASEC model. Personality types that are adjacent to each other in the RIASEC hexagon share higher consistency, while those that are opposite each other share low consistency.

According to Holland (1997, p. 5), the identity construct is "an estimate of the clarity and stability" of a person's interests, goals, talents, and sense of self. A person with many diffuse goals is considered to have low vocational identity, while a person with few clear, focused goals is considered to have high identity. Holland's identity construct thus provides a clear picture of an individual's vocational direction (Brown & Lent, 2004, p. 28).