Overrepresentation of Minorities in Special Education

Introduction

The overrepresentation of African-American and Hispanic students in special education is a persistent and pressing concern in the United States educational system. This literature review investigates the reasons behind this disparity and proposes ways to address it. Many researchers have examined the causes of the unequal referral of African-American and Hispanic students to special education programs, and different explanations have been offered. The law is clear on this issue: all students must be afforded a quality education. Furthermore, the law stipulates that students with disabilities should be educated in the same learning environment as non-disabled students, and that segregation should be considered only as a last resort (Powers, 2004).

This review covers four main topics: (1) a historical overview of special education in the United States; (2) the procedures followed in special education placement and their significance; (3) theories that explain achievement disparities among minority groups; and (4) the impact of teacher perception on the placement and subsequent achievement of African-American and Hispanic students in special education.

Historical Outlook of Special Education in the United States

Congress first enacted Public Law 94-142, which sought to safeguard the right of all children with disabilities to receive an education. The Act guaranteed free and appropriate public education to all children with disabilities through both local and federal government channels. This law was later amended in 1997 and currently operates as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which forms the foundation upon which the rights of persons with disabilities — regardless of gender, age, or race — are protected (Losen, 2007).

According to the United States Department of Education's 23rd Annual Report to Congress (2001), IDEA implementation data show that African-American and Hispanic students appear across all disability categories, with significant disproportionality documented in the categories of Emotional Disturbance (ED) and Mental Retardation (MR) (Madrigal, 2011). The work of Arnold and Marie (2003) documents the marked disparity in special education placements across the United States, demonstrating how African-American and Hispanic students are overrepresented across all disability categories. Similarly, Guiberson (2009) exposes a disparity that has persisted for over three decades in the placement of minority students in special education, with particular attention to Hispanic students. His study presents a thoroughly researched account of the patterns and implications of disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs.

Anderson and Stewart (2007) further affirm that minority students are overrepresented in classes for Emotional Disturbance (ED) and Mental Retardation (MR), while Asian students are underrepresented in disability categories overall. The Presidential directive on special education, issued through an Executive Order on Excellence in Special Education, expressly protects the rights of all citizens regardless of their circumstances. IDEA remains a landmark statute ensuring that all children with disabilities receive a high-quality education.

African-American and Hispanic Males in Special Education

Another dimension of minority overrepresentation is explored by Mills (2003), who examines the gender bias affecting minority males. Mills argues that, in relation to special education enrollment, male students from minority groups are at a significantly higher risk of being placed in special programs than their female counterparts — particularly in categories such as learning disabilities, developmental disabilities, emotional disturbances, and behavioral disorders. This position is further supported by Roberson (2011), who confirms that minority students, and African-American males in particular, are overrepresented in special education programs in the United States. Mills also examines the role that school social workers can play in addressing this imbalance.

A closer examination of the literature on overrepresentation of African-American and Hispanic males in special education also reveals that the referral system itself contributes to the disproportionality found in special education placements. The work of Gotlieb and Polirstok (2005) sheds light on the roles played by social workers in the referral of minority males to special education programs.

References

Anderson, T., & Stewart, J.B. (2007). Introduction to African-American studies: Transdisciplinary approaches and implications. Baltimore, MD: Inprint Editions.

Arnold, M., & Marie, E.L. (2003). Overrepresentation of minority students in special education. Education, 124(2), 230–236.

Brandon, R.R., & Brown, M.R. (2009). African-American families in the special education process: Increasing their level of involvement. Intervention in School and Clinic, 45(2), 85–90.

Bursztyn, A.M. (2007). The Praeger handbook of special education. Westport, CT: Praeger.

De Valenzuela, J.S., Copeland, S.R., Qi, C.H., & Park, M. (2006). Examining educational equity: Revisiting the disproportionate representation of minority students in special education. Exceptional Children, 72(4), 425–441.

Gotlieb, J., & Polirstok, S. (2005). Programs to reduce behavioral infractions and referrals to special education. 27(1), 53–57.

Guiberson, M. (2009). Hispanic representation in special education: Patterns and implications. Preventing School Failure, 53(3), 167–176.

Levinson, J.E. (2005). What are the probable causes of and possible remedies for the overrepresentation of African-American and Hispanic students in the special education categories of emotional/behavioral disorders and mental retardation?

Losen, G.D. (2007). New research on special education and minority students with implications for federal education policy and enforcement. The Civil Rights Project, 370–388.

Madrigal, M. (2011). Special education or special placement? The overrepresentation of minorities in special education (Doctoral dissertation). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Mills, C. (2003). Reducing overrepresentation of African-American males in special education: The role of school social workers. Race, Gender & Class, 10(2), 71–71.

Powers, K.M., Hagans-Murillo, K.S., & Restori, A.F. (2004). Twenty-five years after Larry P.: The California response to overrepresentation of African-Americans in special education. The California Psychologist, 9, 145–158.

Roberson, G.D. (2011). The overrepresentation of African-American males in special education labeled as emotionally disturbed (Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Rueda, R., & Windmueller, M.P. (2006). English language learners, LD, and overrepresentation: A multiple-level analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 99–107.

Tonika, D.G. (2005). Promising prevention and early intervention strategies to reduce overrepresentation of African-American students in special education. Preventing School Failure, 49(3), 33–41.

Waitoller, F.R., Artiles, A.J., & Cheney, D.A. (2009). The miner's canary: A review of overrepresentation research and explanations. The Journal of Special Education, 44(1), 29–49.