Nigerian Culture, History, and Society: An Overview

Introduction

Nigeria, the most populous country on the continent, is situated in the western part of Africa. Today it is considered one of the most prosperous and dynamically developing African countries, owing to its rich oil resources and diamond mines. Nigeria has a very extensive history, having been populated by a number of diverse African cultures since ancient times. According to archaeological evidence, the first civilizations on the territory of Nigeria appeared more than 11,000 years ago. Nigeria is considered to be the homeland of Bantu tribes, which populated most of central and southern Africa between 2000 BC and 1000 AD.

The history of Nigeria attracts archaeologists and historians alike through its diversity and uniqueness, providing a rich background for the study of African peoples' culture, the origins of African civilization, and its role in the process of historical interaction and globalization. In recent years, significant interest in the culture and history of this country has been stimulated by a national revival driven by oil exports, which created the financial foundation for preserving national identity and developing national culture.

History

It is generally agreed that Nigeria has a very unique and original culture from a historical point of view:

"Brass items in Bida, brass and copper heads in Ile-Ife and Benin, bronze products in Igbo-Ukwu, terra cotta animals in Borno, terra cotta heads in Nok, and quartz, basalt, granite, and chalcedony tools dating to the Oldowan and Acheulian age scattered in different locations: all these are among the spectacular archaeological findings that have confirmed the evidence of indigenous societies in Nigeria during prehistoric times." (Falola, 17)

The Nok people, who inhabited Nigeria in the first centuries AD, had an original technique for making sculptures. The country's favorable geographic position promoted economic growth in the 1000s, as the Nigerian kingdoms of Hausa and Kanem-Borno served as a buffer zone in trade between North and South African states and tribes.

In the medieval period, the territory of modern Nigeria was already divided among different ethnic groups, which formed primitive states. By 1000 AD there existed a number of prosperous kingdoms on the territory of the country, such as the Yoruba kingdom, the Igbo, and the Edo kingdom of Benin, among others. Today archaeologists predict that a number of other cultures existed in the medieval epoch that are still undiscovered due to a lack of historical and archaeological evidence.

According to modern historical knowledge, the Yoruba have been the dominant ethnic group west of the River Niger. The Yoruba had a very complex social structure for a medieval African culture: by the beginning of the 11th century they had settled not only in patrilineal rural communities but had also formed cities and city-states subordinated to dynasties of chiefs. The Yoruba were predominantly an agricultural society with developed arts and crafts, especially in urbanized territories. Yoruba artists achieved a high level of skill in terracotta and ivory sculpture.

In the 15th century, the cities of Oyo and Benin became the political and economic centers of the Yoruba, playing a very important role in intercontinental African trade. Benin had grown into a large city by the end of the 15th century, with nearly 100,000 inhabitants. By that time, Benin had established trade with Portuguese merchants and played an important part in developing the slave trade.

The development of the northern kingdoms in the savanna region of Nigeria was also stimulated by commercial ties linking Central and Western Africa with the Sahara and the Mediterranean region, connecting western Sudan with the upper Nile and the North African coast. These trade routes played a key role in the penetration of Islam into West Africa as early as the 9th century AD. By the end of the 15th century, most of the trans-Saharan states and kingdoms of Sudan were experiencing decline and lost their leading role in African trade. The Songhai Empire became the consolidating power, uniting Sudan and the northern Nigerian territories. Songhai gained considerable political influence in the Nigerian savanna and brought a number of small Nigerian states under its authority; it also made Islam the official religion, which directed further development of Nigeria up until colonization by Europeans.

By the end of the 13th century, another developed culture appeared on the map of Nigeria. Starting from the 11th century, Kanem's possessions expanded into the territory of the Lake Chad basin. In order to promote the centralization of power and strengthen political influence, the kings of Kanem-Borno adopted Islam in the 11th century; nevertheless, elements of original social culture were preserved — for example, women continued to take an important role in inner state politics, which is generally unacceptable under strict Islamic norms.

The Kanem-Borno Empire suffered civil conflicts and a shift toward disintegration from the 14th century through the 17th century. Nevertheless, Borno was distinguished by its Muslim culture and gained a reputation as a center of scholarship. The empire's prosperity was mainly provided by the salt trade, livestock, and trans-Sudanic slave trade.

Historians note that the arrival of Islam played a very important role in the cultural development of medieval Nigeria, as it connected Northern and Western African cultures with the rich medieval Muslim civilization of the Middle East and the Arabian world. Islam influenced architecture, art, and folklore, and contributed to the development of centralized governance and civil thought. Nevertheless, folk religious beliefs and traditions continued to coexist with the canons of Islam. Acceptance of Islam was also a very important strategic decision for Nigerian rulers, as it protected their peoples from enslavement in the event of defeat by Muslim enemies — Muslims being prohibited from enslaving fellow Muslims.

Family Relations and Social Structure

As in the majority of African countries, the traditional system in Nigeria has been preserved after democratic social reforms and continues to play a dominant role in people's lives, especially in rural regions, where local officials hold only juridical power but cannot significantly influence the public life of the local population. Tribal and other rudimentary forms of social relations contributed to the development of dynamically changing social morals and ethics. European influence contributed to social transformation, but the ethnic origins of Nigerians form the basis for social relations and the coexistence of different social and religious groups in the country. The majority of Nigerian families follow patriarchal tradition, and rights of inheritance belong predominantly to male family members.

Extended families are very common among Nigerians, especially in rural areas. A low level of urbanization, the absence of labor mechanization, and widespread poverty have led many Nigerians to live in extended families, where several generations — grandparents, parents, children, and close relatives — live under one roof. Many Nigerians note that:

"The action of a man cannot be hidden. If you are living in the neighborhood and you are bad, before you speak your neighbors will know what kind of man or woman you are... If you go to them for help, they will pity you and help you. They may help you settle a quarrel." (Gugler and Flanagan 1978, 76–78)

Patriarchal tradition and strict subordination in family relations have been preserved among Nigerians since ancient times and continue to influence everyday ethics. Only elder family members have the right to use first names — calling elder relatives by their first name is considered a serious insult. Another characteristic feature of Nigerian family relations is the system of mutual care and collective obligation, typical of conservative societies with strong family ties.

The seniority system in Nigerian society is a continuation of traditional indigenous beliefs preserved among representatives of nearly all religious confessions. Seniority represents an inherent set of obligations within the complex social hierarchy of Nigeria: "Traditionally, any senior had a right to unquestioned service, deference, and submissiveness from any junior" (Lloyd 1974, 35–36). Other authors add: "Distinctions defining seniority were, of necessity, elaborate and were expressed in the myriad terms by which individuals greeted and addressed each other" (Fadipe 1970). Aronson (1980, 94) states that survivals of seniority are widely practiced in modern urban business relationships, sometimes causing uncomfortable conflicts, especially between people of opposite genders. Such domination of traditional beliefs over business ethics can create unfavorable conditions for personal advancement based on financial success and merit.

Child marriage practices, typical in many African cultures, are not widespread in today's Nigeria and exist mostly in remote rural regions. Nevertheless, early marriage ages for girls are still widely encouraged. Marriage ceremonies are very important events for Nigerian families and often involve all family members. General statistics show that "of sample mothers, 75 per cent claimed to be married by customary law; 6 per cent had been married under the Marriage Act; 13 per cent were cohabiting, 2 per cent each were single and divorced, and 1 per cent were widowed. One pattern is for men with monogamous homes to have 'outside wives'" (Aronson 1980, 113–114).

Polygamy, which was once widespread in Nigeria, is declining today due to westernization, even among Nigerian Muslims. While in some rural areas marriages across different ethnic groups are not accepted, in urban areas they have become common practice. Divorce is also practiced, predominantly in urban areas.

Traditional social hierarchy, practiced in pre-colonial times, has survived in the form of ethical norms. Nigerians are very respectful toward holders of traditional titles such as chief, emir, Oba, or Eze; as in ancient times, a chief's role was semi-divine, as chiefs were considered to be appointed by supreme powers. Holders of these titles occupy high positions in modern community hierarchy, especially in rural areas. Intra-tribal relations based on traditional hierarchy play a very important role in the country's governance and politics in general. Notably, the title of chief is often regarded by Nigerians as a higher mark of distinction than a doctoral degree.

Because Nigeria is a patriarchal society, most household work is performed by women, who are assisted either by relatives or by servants depending on their social status. Nigerian husbands in the majority do not perform household chores, a norm influenced by both African and Muslim traditions. The lifestyles of the poor and the wealthy in Nigeria differ greatly, and a similar divide exists between urban and rural households. Even in cities as large as Lagos, the majority of inhabitants lack basic facilities such as running water, sewage systems, or electricity.

Conclusion

Despite the colonization and globalization processes that are clearly observable across all developing countries of Africa, Nigeria has been able to preserve its origins and cultural uniqueness. Rich culture, folklore, and original art define the national character of Nigerian culture, which has been maintained for centuries despite significant ethnic and religious diversity. The rich culture and history of Nigeria provide a national cultural and ideological foundation that should be preserved and transmitted to future generations as the country builds a dynamic modern society with a developing economy.

Today, in the era of globalization and economic pressure from international corporations — particularly in the oil industry — it is especially important for Nigeria to preserve its cultural unity in order not to become a clone of a Western civilization that remains, in many respects, alien to modern Nigerians who respect the traditions of their ancestors.