Origins and Design of Skyscrapers: Chicago to New York

Introduction

This paper introduces and discusses the origins of skyscrapers, their design, and some of the major architects responsible for shaping this distinctly American building form.

Origins of Skyscrapers in Chicago

Skyscrapers flourished in Chicago for a variety of reasons. "The main technological advancement that made skyscrapers possible was the development of mass iron and steel production. New manufacturing processes made it possible to produce long beams of solid iron. Essentially, this gave architects a whole new set of building blocks to work with" (Harris). The development of elevators also played a key role, because people could move more quickly and efficiently between floors — which is why skyscrapers are sometimes called "elevator buildings."

Chicago was located near large producers of steel, and it served as an industrial and commercial hub for the entire Midwest. Land was at a premium, so building designers had to find new ways to accommodate more structures on less land. One solution was to build upward rather than outward. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed much of the city, the old cast-iron buildings literally melted. Architects needed to build with materials that would resist fire, such as steel and brick.

The Chicago School and Its Architects

In addition, the soil near Lake Michigan was very poor and could not support a brick building over ten stories, so building materials also needed to be lighter. Skyscrapers helped solve all of these problems. While tall commercial buildings were being constructed in other areas, Chicago was the premier building center at the end of the 19th and into the early 20th centuries.

Several architects led skyscraper development in Chicago and became known collectively as the "Chicago School." They included Louis Sullivan, Daniel Burnham, William Holabird, and Martin Roche, all of whom trained under William Jenney at one time or another. "George B. Post had come very close to perfecting the free-standing metal skeleton designed to carry all building loads, but the credit for the construction of the first true skyscraper is traditionally given to William Le Baron Jenney (1832–1907) for his Home Insurance Building, Chicago, 1883–85" (Roth 174).

William Holabird and Martin Roche studied under Jenney and then formed their own architectural firm. They built the Tacoma Building in Chicago between 1886 and 1889, introducing several new building techniques. They "used cantilevered window oriels to express the lightness of the frame" (Roth 184), and incorporated the typical "Chicago" bay windows that allowed more light to reach each of the building's thirteen floors. The structure was topped with an elaborate cornice and was considered a highly stylish building. It has since been torn down.

Holabird and Roche also built the Marquette Building during 1893–94. "The building is hollow around a light court in the shape of an E, with the long strokes representing rows of offices and the short center stroke representing the elevator banks. Externally the tripartite organization is clear. It begins with a rusticated base of ground floor and mezzanines. Above this are eleven stories of offices between slightly projected rusticated corner piers; in this middle zone no horizontal lines break the upward movement. An upper intermediate floor, an attic floor, and a heavy cornice terminate the building... And though the Marquette Building uses many classical ornamental features, most notably the Renaissance cornice, the near-irreducible logic of its straightforward expression of internal arrangements maximizing comfort and use makes it a paradigm of the Chicago School skyscraper" (Roth 184–5).

Conclusion

Harris, Tom. "How Skyscrapers Work." How Stuff Works. 2002.

Roth, Leland M. A Concise History of American Architecture. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980.