Philosophy of Pleasure: Bentham, Cicero, and Epicurus on Ethics

Introduction: The Challenge of Ethical Determination

The question of ethics and morality — what is the right thing to do versus the wrong thing in a given situation — can be an extremely difficult one. There are occasions where right and wrong are clear, black-and-white distinctions, and in such scenarios the correct course of action is easily discernible, though it may not be the easiest path to follow. However, this clarity is the rarest of occasions. Far more often, trying to determine the right and wrong choice in a given situation is extremely difficult, if not wholly impossible. Usually the world is not divided into simple terms like good and bad, right or wrong, black or white.

Sometimes in life a person will encounter the opportunity to make a choice, and the right or wrong course will not be as obvious as one would like. There will also be occasions, thankfully, where the correct action is self-evident. Sometimes an honest action will be unprofitable and thus unpleasant, making it difficult for the individual to make the correct choice. However, when faced with something so clear-cut, it is the responsibility of all thinking, ethical beings to do the right thing.

Philosophers since before recorded history have tried to find a way to determine ultimate and empirical morality. In his writings, the philosopher Cicero described three criteria that would determine whether an ethical or philosophical theory had any potential veracity. According to Carneades, the three criteria that indicate a sound philosophical theory are: that it allows for choices, that it can be taught, and that the ethics must "appeal to some original motivating factor already present in human nature" (Carneade 15). Jeremy Bentham was one of the most intelligent minds of the eighteenth century, and in his book An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation he attempted to introduce his own perspectives on these three criteria.

Three Criteria for a Valid Ethical Theory

The criteria articulated by the ancient philosophers hold that a valid ethical theory must satisfy three conditions: it must allow human beings to make their own choices in given situations, it must be teachable to the general population, and it must appeal to the better instincts already present in human nature. Each of these components is necessary in order to create an understanding of how ethics and morals are designed in any given society. Jeremy Bentham, writing centuries after the ancients, was able to articulate how those criteria remain applicable in a modern setting.

Choice, Teachability, and Human Nature in Bentham

Ethical theories must allow for human beings to make their own choices in given situations. This means that the ethical and moral rules linked to a given community must depend on the choices of the people who live within it. Each person must understand the rules of the community, but must also be free to either accept or challenge those moral and ethical rules. Bentham writes: "To be sufficient for this purpose, it must be evidently and uniformly greater: greater, not in the eyes of some men only, but of all men who are liable to be in the situation to take their choice between the two offenses; that is, in effect, of all mankind" (191). Men and women must have the ability to choose to participate in the moral and ethical behaviors of their community if there is to be an acceptable set of social rules. Indeed, for moral and ethical dictums to have meaning, there must be people with the potential to disobey them.

Secondly, in order to qualify as an accurate and appropriate philosophical theory, a hypothesis must be teachable to the masses. Since ethics are relative and shaped by the majority population of a culture, they must be communicable to the larger population. Jeremy Bentham addresses the basic question of morality and ethics — what is good or bad — explicitly in his book, finding, as many before him had postulated, that there is no objective standard that determines right or wrong on a universal scale. He writes:

"A man's intention then on any occasion may be styled good or bad, with reference either to the consequences of the act, or with references to his motives. If it be deemed good or bad in any sense, it must be either because it is deemed to be productive of good or of bad consequences, or because it is deemed to originate from a good or from a bad motive. But the goodness or badness of the consequences depend upon the circumstances" (Bentham 147).

This attitude would also inform later ethical principles, such as ethical relativism, wherein philosophers argue that ethics are relative to the community in which the rules of that society are created. The logic behind this aspect of philosophical theory is straightforward: if a person is unable to understand the moral rules of the community, then they cannot possibly be expected to adhere to them.

Lastly, a theory must appeal to the masses as appropriate to the better part of their human nature. Human beings — whether through legislation, religious practice, or whatever larger system of rules they apply — endeavor to create dictums that apply not only to themselves but to all of mankind. Bentham writes:

"It is an acknowledged truth that every kind of act whatever, and consequently every kind of offense, is apt to assume a different character, and be attended with different effects, according to the nature of the motive which gives birth to it. This makes it requisite to take a view of the several motives by which human conduct is liable to be influenced" (97).

The purpose of such an appeal is to persuade other men and women to adopt behaviors that will improve the living situation of mankind and ensure that the least amount of pain — whether physical or emotional — occurs.

The criteria that the ancient philosophers described — that ethics require a person to have choice, that they be teachable to others, and that they appeal to the better instincts of human beings — are all exhibited in the writings of Jeremy Bentham. Each of these components is necessary for understanding how ethics and morals are constructed in any given society. The people must have the ability to accept or reject ethical rules, must have the ability to learn them from the rest of their social structure, and those rules must appeal to the innate sensibility of the individual so that the majority population can embrace them as truth.

Pain, Pleasure, and the Foundation of Morality

At the heart of Bentham's book is an exploration of legislative and governmental forms best suited to the people and the ethics of the population as a whole — a question about pain and pleasure, and the attempt to maximize pleasure while minimizing pain as much as possible (Bentham 1). This argument also appears in the writings of the ancients. The crux of the question of ethics and morals seems to be that the most important distinction is understanding the difference between pain and pleasure. In any society, what will be considered ethical and moral according to Bentham's criteria will be what is best for the largest proportion of society. He writes: "Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do" (Bentham 1). Here, Bentham's philosophy appears most closely related to that of Cicero and his pursuit of perfect justice.

Conclusion: Competing Visions of the Good Life

Each of these three men held a distinct view of what the most important aspect of life entails: either pain or pleasure. Cicero and Bentham both believed that the pleasure of the masses was the most important thing. They held that ethical and moral distinctions were defined by what would be most pleasurable, and thus most beneficial, for the largest population. Contrary to this perspective, Epicurus believed that people should endeavor to do whatever would make them happiest — whatever gives them the most pleasure — even if that meant that other people would have to suffer in consequence.

Works Cited

Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Volume 1. 1789. Print.

Carneade. Cicero de Finibus. 5. Print. 15–17.

Cicero. On Moral Ends. Ed. Julia Annas. Cambridge.

Epicurus. The Epicurus Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia. Translated by Brad Inwood. Hackett.