Psychological Capital and Resilience in K–12 Learners

Introduction

Throughout its long history, psychology developed into a field that deals largely with abnormal conditions. Recently, a new trend has emerged within the field that highlights positive psychological attributes and the ability to use them to provide a more productive and meaningful life. Rather than focusing on the negative aspects of a person's psyche, psychological capital focuses on positive traits such as self-efficacy, hope, resilience, and personal motivation to drive the individual toward greater achievement. This research explores the psychological capital represented by resilience and its impact on academic achievement in middle school learners in grades 6–8. The study examines the development of resilience and the factors that contribute to it throughout the child's school career.

The concept of Positive Organizational Behavior (POB) arose from the field of psychological capital. POB is the result of positive psychological capital—such as hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resilience—that produces measurable changes in behavior. The concept of POB can be translated into the educational setting by examining factors such as school behavior, attendance, and academic success. This research explores the relationship between psychological capital and Positive Organizational Behavior among school children in grades 6–8.

Resilience refers to a positive way of coping with danger or stress. The resilient child can overcome conflict, failure, and changes in the school and family environment. Often, the resilient child will not only survive stressful times, but will thrive and achieve great things despite their circumstances. Learners in grades 6–8 were chosen for this study because this stage of life is a transitional period. Students face increased academic responsibility; they are no longer young children, yet they are not fully teenagers either. They are coping with many physical and emotional changes, and they must demonstrate some level of resilience in order to transition successfully into adolescence and later into adulthood.

This research explores the current body of literature on psychological capital and its ability to affect many aspects of academic achievement in children in grades 6–8. It focuses on the attribute of resilience while also examining related areas that deepen understanding of the subject. The research supports the thesis that students who are resilient perform better academically than those who lack resilience, and it does so through an examination of existing literature on the subject.

Research into Resiliency

Resilience is the ability to bounce back from change. It is one of the key factors in psychological capital and forms a central focus of this research. The first group of studies involves an investigation of resilience and the factors that influence it, drawing not only from the target population but from any aspects of resilience research that may be important to understanding the subject. Resilience involves an adaptive process; it can be considered the opposite of maladaptive behaviors or mental illness.

Research into improving the welfare and academic success of America's youth began by focusing on "at-risk" children and on deficiencies rather than strengths. This led to studies concerned with psychopathology and the identification of at-risk students (Patterson, 2001). During the 1980s, research shifted from psychopathology to prevention and intervention. Some schools tried to develop programs based on this research, but found that high-risk environments did not necessarily predict poor academic outcomes. Some children identified as at-risk due to environmental factors went on to become quite successful. These experiences led to a new era of research focused on how to promote resilience rather than simply identify children at risk. This body of research resulted in a greater appreciation for the importance of caring relationships and support from family and community (Patterson, 2001).

Erik Erikson (1968) proposed the psychosocial learning theory, according to which children pass through a series of stages in their psychosocial development: Hope, Will, Purpose, Competence, Fidelity, Love, Care, and Wisdom. The first stage occurs from birth to approximately 18 months. During this stage, the child develops a sense of trust through experiences of nurture and care from their parents. If the child does not feel properly cared for at this stage, it may result in insecurity and mistrust later in life.

The second stage, "Will," occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child begins to build self-esteem, the ability to distinguish right from wrong, and a sense of pride. This stage can have lasting consequences, as children are especially vulnerable to criticism from others. Preschoolers (ages 3–5) are in the "Purpose" stage, during which the child tries to imitate adults through play and begins to ask "why" things happen. School-aged children from 6–12 years are in the "Competence" stage, learning many new pieces of information. If they experience repeated feelings of failure, they may develop low self-esteem and begin to look beyond their parents' worldview for guidance.

From age 12–18, the individual experiences a key shift: up to this point, development depended largely on what was done to the child by others, whereas now development depends on what the person does for themselves. They begin to develop their own sense of morality and personal beliefs. The young adult (ages 18–35) seeks companionship and stability. The middle-aged adult enters a "Care" stage, working to develop a sense of purpose beyond the family. In late adulthood, the individual reflects on life, assessing both contributions and failures in the search for meaning.

Erikson's theories provide a framework for viewing the stages of a person's life. Applied to this study, one must consider which stages have the greatest impact on resilience and what each stage contributes to personal resilience over time. School-aged children are in the Competence stage and have already progressed through their infant and preschool psychosocial development stages. Much of their psychosocial world is already shaped by the time they enter school. Unfortunately, if a child has had negative experiences that led to poor psychosocial development, those experiences can affect their ability to cope at school, setting them up for either success or failure both academically and socially.

Children who have spent their early years in a nurturing environment develop a sense of trust and confidence in their ability to succeed. Those who were less fortunate may carry issues that predispose them to failure. This is where resilience theory and Erikson's work fit together. A child who already has the internal tools necessary for success will be more likely to be resilient in school. The critical question researchers must ask is whether children who grew up in poor psychosocial environments can be taught to be resilient—and helping those children should be a primary concern for researchers of resilience and academic achievement.

Wallace (2008) proposed an interesting theory by comparing pathological resilience domains to an ecosystem. Ecosystems demonstrate resilience and the ability to recover from trauma in many circumstances, and Wallace compared the human psyche to an ecosystem in its capacity to recover from shocks and traumas. According to this theory, an ecosystem seeks to obtain and maintain a state of stability and equilibrium, and the ability to recover and return to that equilibrium is the essence of resilience. Mental disorders such as depression, substance abuse, and obsessive-compulsive disorder reflect a mind that is not in a state of equilibrium, just as physical diseases reflect a body out of balance. Physical and mental disorders are often comorbid, reflecting an entire system that is out of balance. A healthy state, both physically and mentally, reflects the equilibrium every organism strives to achieve (Wallace, 2008).

A child with greater resilience skills can recover from a greater disturbance than a child with little resilience. Erikson's psychosocial model defines the circumstances the person must overcome, while Wallace's theory of resilience explains what the child needs to overcome those circumstances and become a productive adult despite early hardships. Together, the theories of Erikson and Wallace provide the conceptual underpinnings of this research into the connection between resilience and academic success.

The theoretical background described above provides a foundation for exploring the factors that contribute to academic performance. Many studies have sought to discover the conditions that promote academic achievement, and understanding where resilience fits within those conditions plays an important role in guiding future research.

A longitudinal study conducted by Hanson and Austin (2003) explored factors that influenced academic success in California students. Finding ways to increase academic performance has been a key concern for many years, and standardized testing has heightened the stakes for school systems. Health risks and low resilience assets were found to be equally detrimental to test scores in both high- and low-performing schools (Hanson & Austin, 2003). Substance use and availability were found to be more detrimental to high-performing schools than to lower-performing ones. Students who did not engage in risky behaviors or violence were better performers than those who did. Students who ate nutritious meals, engaged in exercise, had caring relationships, and were held to high expectations were more likely to achieve higher test scores (Hanson & Austin, 2003).

Factors that Affect Academic Achievement

A feeling of safety in the school environment also had an important effect on test scores. Schools with high levels of harassment based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or disability tended to have lower test scores than those without such problems. Schools with high levels of violence, vandalism, theft, physical fighting, and weapons possession also had considerably lower test scores (Hanson & Austin, 2003). Persistent stress from the school environment means that students must possess a higher level of resilience to overcome the effects of their surroundings.

Eliminating stressors in the school environment is one part of the solution, but it is only half of the equation. Stresses also stem from sources outside of school, such as the home or community, and schools can only control their own environment to a limited degree. Therefore, understanding what contributes to building student resilience is an important factor in helping students cope both inside and outside of school.

Hanson and Austin explored resilience assets as part of their evaluation of factors influencing academic performance. The study found that both internal and external assets promote resilience and serve as protective factors against health- and performance-compromising behaviors. External resilience assets included caring relationships, high expectations, and opportunities for meaningful participation in school, home, community, and peer environments. Internal resilience assets included cooperation, communication skills, self-efficacy, empathy, problem-solving abilities, self-awareness, and personal goals and aspirations. Every measure of external resilience was positively linked to test score outcomes, and schools where students reported feeling sad or depressed consistently scored lower than those where students had a more positive outlook.

A study by Wasonga, Christman, and Lloyd (2003) found that differences in resilience and protective factors existed according to a student's age, ethnicity, and gender in urban schools, supporting the finding that environmental factors within the school setting influence the development of resilience. Promoting an atmosphere that discourages harassment based on ethnicity, gender, or age is therefore an important step in creating a more resilient student body.

Resilience was found to be a greater predictor of academic performance—and later job performance—than IQ scores or raw intelligence (Kitano & Lewis, 2005). Resilient children share several common attributes, and these attributes were found to be universal regardless of ethnic identity or social background. Children have demonstrated the ability to develop excellent coping strategies in both favorable and extremely difficult environmental circumstances (Kitano & Lewis, 2005).

One of the more recent trends in academic literature on resilience centers on the concept that resilience can be taught. The ability to self-regulate one's cognitive, motivational, and behavioral dimensions of academic functioning was found to be an important factor in the development of successful learners (Nota, Soresi, & Zimmerman, 2004). Fostering self-regulation is therefore an important step in building resilience within the student body.

Building strong communities and families is the key to fostering resilience among students and increasing academic success. Studies support the importance of building partnerships between schools, communities, and families (Bryan, 2005). Children living in poverty can develop resilience, provided they receive the correct support from their family and community (Gizir, 2004).

A study at one university suggested that resilience can be taught to children through the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP), which helps students learn to overcome difficult situations and emotions. The program delivers resilience concepts through role playing, stories, and cartoons, and then asks students to apply these skills to real-world situations and daily life. It is targeted at late elementary and early middle school students.

Conclusion

Resilience is the ability to recover from negative situations in life. Research in this study suggests that the years prior to a child reaching school age are critical in the development of resilience. By the time a student reaches school age, the experiences in their life have either prepared them for resilience or created an atmosphere that does not foster it. Understanding the factors that promote or hinder resilience is essential to helping students achieve high academic performance.