Roman, Islamic, and Early Medieval Art: A Comparative Study

Art forms and styles differ from period to period and from culture to culture, often displaying characteristics particular to their time and place of origin. In understanding the history of art, we must also take into account the historical, cultural, and other conditions that prevailed at the time, which may have affected the type and style of art created. This applies especially to differences in religious perception and orientation.

At the same time, understanding a work of art within the context of its period and historical-cultural matrix is never a simple process. Many factors and complexities come into play in the analysis of any one work of art. This paper explores the comparison of styles and forms of art from different cultures and periods of history, discussing selected works not only in terms of their differences but also in terms of any similarities that can be found. The discussion also provides a brief overview of the different periods and cultures as a precursor to the more in-depth analysis of selected artworks.

Roman art refers to the visual art created throughout the history of the Roman Empire and the cultural milieu of ancient Rome. It encompasses many types, including architecture, painting, sculpture, and mosaic work, as well as metalwork, gem engraving, ivory carvings, pottery, and miniature book illustrations.

Central to the style of Roman art is the inheritance of views and perceptions about art from ancient Greek civilization. This applies particularly to Roman sculpture, which was deeply influenced by the Greek understanding and appreciation of the human form. Other important influences must also be considered, including Etruscan and Egyptian cultural traditions.

The impact of these various influences was significant. As one commentator notes: "As Roman domination spread through Italy, Europe and the Mediterranean… Roman art absorbed this Etruscan style and the Etruscan influence included temple architecture, sculpture, portraiture and wall painting. Rome was also deeply influenced by the art of the Hellenistic world, which had spread to southern Italy and Sicily through the Greek colonies there" (Roman art).

Islamic art is generally defined as art produced in Islamic countries from the seventh century onwards. A broad definition describes it as follows: "The term Islamic art not only describes the art created specifically in the service of the Muslim faith (for example, a mosque and its furnishings) but also characterizes the art and architecture historically produced in the lands ruled by Muslims, produced for Muslim patrons, or created by Muslim artists" (The Nature of Islamic Art).

One of the central characteristics distinguishing Islamic art from Western European art is the relative absence of the human figure, or more precisely, the reduction of emphasis on the human element. This stems from Islamic religious views that tend to regard the representation of the human figure as inappropriate in works of art — a form of idolatry that would contravene the tenets of the Quran.

Islamic art is not, however, exclusively religious in nature; it reflects the rich and varied culture of the Islamic world. One must also bear in mind the complex historical antecedents of the tradition. Many countries conquered by Muslim rulers had existing artistic traditions that were absorbed into Islamic art. "With its geographic spread and long history, Islamic art was inevitably subject to a wide range of regional and even national styles and influences as well as changes within the various periods of its development" (The Nature of Islamic Art). Furthermore, Islamic art is noted for its strong aesthetic appeal and its unique balance between design and form, which very often transcends cultural differences.

In historical terms, this period is referred to as the "period in European history traditionally dated from the fall of the Roman Empire to the dawn of the Renaissance" (Middle Ages). As a result of the decline of the Roman Empire, European society was exposed to a wide variety of new social and cultural influences, setting in motion a series of changes that would eventually lead to the Renaissance. This transformation was characterized by, among other developments, "the emergence of Gothic architecture, the appearance of new religious orders, and the expansion of learning and the university" (Middle Ages).

In terms of art, this meant that the decorative arts of the Celtic and Germanic peoples were incorporated into Christian art, giving rise to new artistic forms and content. Among the most important art forms of this period were the impressively ornate manuscripts produced by monks on vellum (Art and Architecture of the Early Middle Ages). These are discussed further below.

As suggested above, Islamic art, like many other cultural art forms, is "the mirror of a culture and its world view" (Siddiqui). This observation could equally be applied to Roman and Medieval art. With Islamic art, however, we encounter a tradition that is particularly strongly linked to the cultural and religious milieu from which it originates. Islamic art reflects not only the cultural values of Islamic societies but, "even more importantly, the way in which its adherents, the Muslims, view the spiritual realm, the universe, life, and the relationship of the parts to the whole" (Siddiqui).

Two central aspects can be isolated across many examples of Islamic art: the religious injunction against idolatry, and the general view that representing living beings in art was the prerogative of God alone, not of human artists. As a result, much of the art in older Islamic cultures is decorative and abstract.

"The idea behind the condemnation of making images of prophets and saints, and of adoring these images and tombs, was that such practices materialized worship, which belongs to God alone. Likewise, the creation of representational images by artists was condemned because only God is able to give life to creation" (Islamic Art and Architecture).

This religious outlook resulted in an art that limits the representation of the human figure. When figures do appear, they are secondary to the religious features of the artwork. As a consequence, Islamic artists generally "did not develop an understanding of anatomy, musculature, and perspective" and instead "channeled their energies into the development of decorative patterns based on geometric forms" (Islamic Art and Architecture).

A good example of this style is found in a glazed ceramic tile from Iran dating to the late fifteenth century (Figure 1). The central motif represents the dome of a mosque — a central symbol of Islamic religion and culture. The calligraphic script bordering the central symbol serves both as a decorative element and as a bearer of religious meaning, referring to the devotional context of the artwork as a whole. The entire tile becomes an illustration of the way art serves religion in Islamic culture.