11th and 12th Century Romanesque Architecture Overview

Introduction

The term Romanesque architecture applies to the various stages of European architecture influenced by both Carolingian architecture and the diffusion of Latin civilization following the break-up of the Roman Empire, extending through the end of the 12th century. While there has been a modest resurgence of interest in Romanesque architectural style in the West, the term continues to conjure mistaken perceptions about precisely what Romanesque architecture is and which architectural elements define its style. To clarify these issues, this paper provides an overview of Romanesque architecture during the 11th and 12th centuries, followed by a discussion of representative examples. Key findings are summarized in the conclusion.

Origins and Definition of Romanesque Architecture

To the citizens of 11th and 12th century Europe, Romanesque architecture must have appeared like a very bright light after a long period of darkness. As Cotterill (1915) observed, "Romanesque architecture — that architecture which after a very long and dark period of undeveloped existence (from c. 600 to c. 1000 or later) seems to have burst forth with almost incredible suddenness in all its beauty and perfection." The origins of Romanesque architecture are multiple, with some relating to the influence of Carolingian architecture and others rooted in the legacy of the Roman Empire and the subsequent diffusion of Latin civilization throughout Europe. As Calkins (1988) points out, "Carolingian architecture represents the beginning of a specifically medieval architecture. Although Carolingian builders borrowed heavily from earlier traditions, their assimilation of early Christian forms, combined with indigenous northern structural traditions and their own innovations in plan and exterior articulation, became the basis from which Romanesque architecture emerged."

According to Kimball and Edgell (1918), notwithstanding the influence of Carolingian architecture, any analysis of Romanesque architecture should begin with a definition of the term itself. In this regard, the authors report that the term is best understood in relation to the spread of Romance languages following the collapse of the Roman Empire. "After the break-up of the Roman Empire," Kimball and Edgell write, "there ensued a period of cultural confusion. From this confusion homogeneous nationalities slowly emerged. Based on Latin civilization, quickened by northern energy, modified and differentiated one from another by conditions of race and geography, nations arose." Likewise, the same type of diffusion and homogenization took place during the 11th and 12th centuries in architecture. As the authors add, "Precisely the same phenomena appear in architecture, based upon Roman as a point of departure, but differing from it, each school being individual and expressive of the peculiar genius of the race which produced it, yet all bound by a common root and thus included in a common classification: Romanesque."

This common classification of an architectural style as Romanesque does not, on its own, precisely define which architectural elements comprise the style. Citing a concise but incomplete definition offered by the French archaeologist Quicherat, Kimball and Edgell note that "Romanesque is an architecture that, retaining elements of Roman, has ceased to be Roman, and anticipating elements of Gothic, is not yet Gothic. Every phrase of this definition is true, yet its total is pernicious, as it overlooks the self-sufficiency of the Romanesque style and relegates it to the position of a mere architecture of transition." Noting the fundamental difference between organic and inorganic architectural styles — the former with its vaults supported by ribs, buttresses, and piers in a way that resembles a bony structure (hence the term "organic"), and the latter arranged solely with support considerations in mind — Kimball and Edgell argue that Romanesque architecture remains an organic form requiring examination on its own merits. As they emphasize, "Romanesque architecture must, therefore, be studied for itself alone and not as a result of what has gone before or as an excuse for what is coming after."

Defining Characteristics: Vaults, Planes, and Organic Form

The reference to organic architecture is echoed by Clapham in Romanesque Architecture in Western Europe, where he reports that "The term 'first Romanesque art' has been applied to a widely diffused type of building which is the immediate precursor of the full Romanesque style. The vault, considered in its form, in its outline and in its economy, is always the essential feature of Romanesque architecture; apart from the general lines of the plan and the free fancy of the decoration, everything is subordinated to it." Kimball and Edgell similarly note, "Since it was organic it was, of course, vaulted, the favorite form being the domical groin vault. This form we have seen developed in Byzantine architecture, as in the vaults over the aisles of Hagia Sophia, from the heavy concrete vaults of the Romans." By contrast, Timmers and Hedlund suggest that "The main element in Romanesque architecture is the interplay of plane surfaces, the principal factor of development the stone vault. The plane is everything in Romanesque architecture."

This divergence of opinion concerning the defining characteristics of Romanesque architecture might frustrate modern researchers. Fortunately, the analysis is made somewhat easier by the fact that the style was confined almost entirely to religious buildings. As Kimball and Edgell emphasize, "In no other style, not even Gothic, is the interest so confined to ecclesiastical architecture." Likewise, Stoddard (1972) reports that "It is the church which is the key to the nature of Romanesque architecture. To the monastic church came the pilgrims to join the choir of monks in the liturgy of praise." Stoddard cites as outstanding examples of 11th century Romanesque architecture the monastic churches of Sainte-Foy at Conques, on the pilgrimage route to Spain; Saint-Sernin at Toulouse in southwestern France; the third church at Cluny; the Cluniac priory of Paray-le-Monial; and Vézelay in northern Burgundy. The nave of Conques, Sainte-Foy (c. 1050–c. 1120) is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Conques, Sainte-Foy, c. 1050–c. 1120. Nave. Source: Stoddard, p. 30.

Conclusion

The research showed that the term Romanesque architecture refers to an architectural style that emerged in Europe during the 10th century and reached its zenith during the 11th and 12th centuries. The highly ornate qualities of the Romanesque style were shown to be supplemented by vaults and buttresses that added aesthetic value to structures while serving important structural functions as well. While scholars may not agree on the precise architectural elements that define Romanesque architecture, the research also confirmed that there are a sufficient number of commonalities among the buildings so characterized to establish them as distinctly Romanesque in style.