Rome vs. Carthage: History of the Punic Wars

History of Rome

The earliest evidence of human habitation in the city of Rome dates to 1500 BC. However, the earliest established, permanent settlements began to form in the 8th century BC. At that time, archaeology indicates two closely related peoples in the area: the Latins and the Sabines. These Italic peoples were tribal in origin, with a social hierarchy that dominated Rome's early form of government and its growing claim to power in the region.

The date of Rome's founding as a village or series of tribal territories is uncertain, but the legendary founding of the city dates to 753 BC. Although this date is steeped in myth, it is roughly supported by archaeological evidence. According to legend, Romans trace their origins to Aeneas, a Trojan who escaped the sack of Troy by fleeing to Italy. The son of Aeneas, Iulius (commonly referred to as Julius), founded the city of Alba Longa, thus establishing a monarchy. Two descendants of the Alba Longa kings — the twin brothers Romulus and Remus — would go on to become the founders of Rome. Eventually the two brothers quarreled, resulting in the murder of Remus and leaving Romulus as the first King of Rome. The traditional date of Romulus's sole reign and the subsequent founding of the city is April 21, 753 BC. Estimated dates of Rome's founding range from 787 to 750 BC.

History of Carthage

Carthage was founded by Phoenician settlers in 814 BC (Bagnall, 2002). Its early years were defined by rivalry between landholding and maritime families. Because of the city's dependence on trade, the maritime party controlled the government. Slowly, Carthage began to gain dominance over the western Mediterranean. In the early 6th century BC, Carthage began the systematic conquest of the African interior and coastal regions.

By the beginning of the 5th century BC, Carthage was the primary commercial center of the region (Huby, 2003). The city spread its control along the North African coast from present-day Morocco to the borders of Egypt. Its influence had also spread into the Mediterranean, with control over Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and the western half of Sicily. Colonies had also been established in Iberia.

The Punic Wars: An Overview

Rome was historically on friendly terms with Carthage. Because Rome was primarily agricultural, it was interested mainly in Italy. As late as 279 BC, Carthage and Rome signed a treaty against Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who posed a threat to both cities (Bagnall, 2002). However, Carthage occupied the Sicilian town of Messana in 264 BC after a group of mercenaries appealed to Carthage for help against Hiero II, king of Syracuse. This act alarmed Rome, as Messana was located in the northeast corner of Sicily, very near the Greek towns of Italy that fell under Roman protection. Once the problem with Hiero II was resolved, these mercenaries appealed to Rome for aid in fighting off the Carthaginians. Although the Senate was reluctant to oppose Carthage, the people pressed for action.

The Punic Wars are defined by three distinct conflicts between Carthage and Rome. When they began, Rome had nearly completed the conquest of Italy, while Carthage controlled northwestern Africa and the islands of the western Mediterranean. When the wars ended, Carthage was ruined, and Rome was the greatest power west of China. The first war saw Rome fighting to break Carthage's growing hold on the chain of islands that enabled it to control the western Mediterranean. The second war directly pitted the ambitions of the two commercial powers against each other, with the initial area of conflict being Sicily. The third and final war was Carthage's last, desperate attempt to preserve its liberty.

The First Punic War (264–241 BC)

The First Punic War took place from 264 to 241 BC (Goldsworthy, 2004). In the 3rd century BC, Carthage held many territories that gave it dominance over the western Mediterranean Sea, but when it conquered Messana in Sicily, it encountered Rome in open war for the first time. The First Punic War was fought primarily at sea around Sicily. Carthage was by far the stronger of the two powers in naval warfare. Carthage's supremacy was challenged by a large-scale Roman construction of a naval fleet. Over time, Rome's naval strength increased considerably. In 256 BC, Carthage was besieged, but the Romans were ultimately defeated. For years afterwards, Carthage was more successful and operated under the leadership of Hamilcar. However, in 241 BC, at the Battle of the Aegates Islands, the Carthaginians were beaten so severely that they requested peace. The resulting agreement required Carthage to leave Sicily and pay a large indemnity, after which Rome controlled Sicily.

The First Punic War grew immediately out of a quarrel between the Sicilian cities of Messana (now Messina) and Syracuse (Goldsworthy, 2002). One faction of the Messanians called on Carthage for help and another called on Rome. The Strait of Messana, which separates the Italian Peninsula from Sicily, was of extreme strategic importance, and both powers responded. The Punic army arrived in Sicily first, arranged a peace between Messana and Syracuse, and established a garrison. Upon its arrival, the Roman army ejected the Carthaginians from the garrison, and thus the war began.

Roman legions occupied eastern Sicily, and the newly created Roman fleet, after victories at Mylae (260 BC) and off Cape Ecnomus (256 BC), landed in Africa. This excursion ended in failure, and its commander, Regulus, was captured in 255 BC by the Greek mercenary general Xanthippus. In Sicily, the Romans took Palermo (254 BC) but were effectively blocked farther west by the guerrilla warfare of Hamilcar Barca, and they failed to take Lilybaeum, the chief Punic base. The Romans equipped a new fleet that destroyed the Punic fleet off the Aegates in 241 BC, and Carthage requested peace. The terms were the payment of an indemnity and the cession of Punic Sicily to Rome. The primary events of the next 20 years were the Roman entry into Sardinia and Corsica — a gross breach of the treaty — and Hamilcar's conquests in Spain (Goldsworthy, 2004).