Plutarch's Lives: Solon, Publicola, and Moral Biography

Introduction: The Challenge of Ancient Biography

Even today it is difficult enough for historians to write about something that occurred not even 50 or 100 years ago, given the many simultaneous events and competing viewpoints on any given issue. Historians must examine all available facts and determine the overarching truth, often filtered through their own personal perspectives. Imagine, then, the challenge that Mestrius Plutarch faced when writing about events that occurred 300 years before his time, when far fewer materials were available and he often had to rely on ancient manuscripts no longer present today. In his most celebrated work, Lives, Plutarch may have sometimes filled in the gaps or stretched the truth, but this substantial body of work remains one of the major sources for understanding his period.

Born during the reign of Roman Emperor Claudius in Greece, Plutarch produced an extensive body of writing. His most important work, Lives, is a series of biographies of famous Greek and Roman men arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings. One example of these pairings is Solon and Publicola.

Solon and the Foundations of Athenian Democracy

In the biography of Solon, Plutarch writes about the logically minded Greek statesman and lawgiver who managed to find a successful governmental middle ground between the needs of the aristocracy and the general public. Solon is often called the founder of Athenian democracy, despite certain tyrannical tendencies. Although his laws would not be considered democratic by later standards, they set the foundation for future governments. In the first section of Solon, Plutarch shows how even in youth this man was a worldly individual, extensively traveling and developing relationships with the most revered men and lawgivers of his era.

According to Plutarch, eighth-century Athens was essentially ruled by a council of very wealthy nobles called the Areopagus. They stripped the king of most of his power and developed an oligarchy, which irresponsibly caused the economic devastation of the average Greek farmer. In order to pay off their debts, farmers sold their family members and themselves into slavery both within Athens and abroad. In order to keep the threat of revolution at bay, both the noblemen and the farmers agreed to put Solon in charge, owing to his knowledge and objectivity — his ability to walk a fine line between competing interests.

Solon quickly cancelled all outstanding debts and freed as many Athenians as possible. He banned loans secured by the threat of slavery and attempted to return enslaved Athenians from abroad. He also encouraged the development of olive and wine production to support the farming class.

Solon's Economic Reforms and Class Structure

Solon's economic changes were coupled with a new class structure. He divided Athenian society into four classes based on wealth. The two wealthiest classes could serve on the Areopagus. The third class could participate in an elected council of four hundred people, which represented the four tribes and served as a checks-and-balances system against the noble class. The fourth, or poorest, class was allowed to participate in an assembly that voted on affairs brought before it by the council. This lower class also took part in a new judicial court, which eventually removed civil and military cases from the exclusive control of the wealthiest citizens.

It is seen throughout history that individuals such as Solon — those who prove themselves a worthy balancing act between factions — do not tend to last as long as those regarded as strong supporters of one side over another. Although Solon was a respected leader owing to his political changes, his settlement did not endure for long because the underlying economic problems remained unresolved.

Plutarch next wrote about the Roman Publius Valerius, later surnamed Publicola — or Poplicola, meaning "friend of the people" — for proposing measures that gave individuals the right of appeal. As Plutarch stated: "Such was Solon, and with him we compare Publicola, to whom the Roman people gave this surname later as a mark of honour."