Rome vs. Carthage: The Real Causes of the Third Punic War

Roman Engineering and Imperial Ambition

There can be no doubt that the Roman Empire was central to the shaping of Western civilization and the modern world. Arguably no nation before or since has matched Rome's success in large-scale civic planning and widespread infrastructure — a fact made all the more remarkable given the technological and energy limitations the Romans faced compared to the innovations of recent centuries. Certain examples of Roman architecture and engineering remain unparalleled. The Colosseum is still one of the most iconic buildings in the world, and the fact that it remains largely intact despite centuries of wear and no systematic upkeep testifies not only to the Romans' ability to plan, coordinate, and execute massive projects, but to their skill and efficiency in doing so. The entertainments staged there included flooding the arena to reenact naval battles and draining it for gladiatorial combat shortly afterward. Such feats were indicative of Roman culture both in terms of the scale of the undertaking and the violence that was an inherent part of much of Roman civilization.

Other civic undertakings were of an even larger scale and of greater practical benefit to the inhabitants of the Empire and to successive generations living on Romanized lands. Bridges, roads, and aqueducts connected vast stretches of the Empire, and many of these structures remained in use for centuries after Rome's fall. In fact, many modern roads are built on top of ancient Roman ones — the saying "all roads lead to Rome" was a direct reference to the massive and widespread transportation infrastructure built during the Empire's heyday. These networks facilitated trade and ensured a far greater degree of security during travel. This achievement, however, was itself only possible because of Rome's deep commitment to military power.

The Pattern of Imperial Warfare

The Roman approach to creating and deploying a widely stationed standing army is perhaps, for better or worse, the feature of the Roman Empire that subsequent Western nations and societies have been most willing — and even eager — to emulate. All subsequent empires found it necessary to employ the same or similar military methods in order to retain control over the disparate lands under their dominion. From European colonial holdings in Africa and South America, to the United States' appropriation of land from Native Americans, to many of the international military installations and actions undertaken by Western nations and organizations today, retaining the political and economic cooperation of large geographic areas and disparate groups of people has consistently required a standing military presence.

It is not only in the presence of an occupying military force that more modern events can be seen to reflect ancient Roman techniques of empire-building and maintenance. Some of the strategies employed by superpowers in regions outside their own domestic boundaries — and at home, to build public support for such efforts — are also remarkably similar across time. At its heart, war is always about control, usually of wealth and power, which generally work in tandem. This was just as true during the era of the Romans as it is today, but it was equally unpopular and politically untenable to name the thirst for power or greed for another nation's wealth as the purpose for war. Instead, other motives had to be constructed to justify such action.

Rome's Case Against Carthage

Without drawing direct comparisons to modern military actions, the similarities between the fabricated justifications of war offered by the Romans and those offered by more modern empires and nations can be clearly seen in Rome's Third Punic War against Carthage in 149 B.C.E. With little real basis, Roman officials decided after a visit to Carthage that the Carthaginians presented a very real and growing threat, and that their proximity to Rome was simply too close to tolerate from a hostile enemy. Because of the supposed threat the Carthaginian city-state presented, the Empire launched a pre-emptive attack on the city in order to prevent any military action by Carthage against the Roman Empire or its allies. The ethical and political validity of a pre-emptive attack has long been a subject of major debate, perhaps more so in the modern era than in the ancient world, but such theoretical objections carry little weight once the more practical elements of military power and accumulated wealth are considered.

It is difficult to believe that Rome's ruling powers truly felt threatened by Carthage. In his Roman History, Appian notes that after Cato's visit to Carthage — during which he and his fellow ambassadors observed the region's growing prosperity and immense resources — Cato "continually expressed the opinion in the Senate that Carthage must not exist."

Appian does not record Cato identifying any explicit threat he perceived during his visit. Instead, it was the wealth of the city-state that inspired fear in Cato and the others — if that fear was even genuine. It is true that wealth is a prerequisite for waging war, and that a more prosperous Carthage would constitute a greater potential threat, but it seems more likely that Cato saw an opportunity to appropriate a greater share of Carthaginian wealth for Rome and its allies, motivated by greed more than fear.

There is substantial evidence to support this interpretation. The Third Punic War — the final chapter of the century-long conflict between Rome and Carthage, ending in Carthage's utter destruction — came fifty years after the Second Punic War. Those fifty years of nearly uninterrupted peace had been hugely prosperous for the region, despite the militarily restrictive terms of the treaty imposed by Rome. At the same time, Rome was consistently supporting the Numidians and their king, Massinissa, in territorial disputes with Carthage. This created a sense of imbalance and injustice in the region and made the Carthaginians deeply distrustful of Roman intentions. Rome's closer relationship with Massinissa brought the Empire clear economic benefits, particularly after Carthage's fifty-year tribute — a condition of the peace ending the Second Punic War — expired. Carthage's persistent growth and prosperity in the face of these limitations and inequities could only have been a source of irritation for Rome.

Conclusion: Wealth, Power, and the Logic of Empire

Creating the appearance of a threat to justify war, replacing an unfriendly government with one designed to serve a foreign power's interests — the causes and effects of war have changed very little over the past two thousand years. No matter the specific circumstances, war ultimately comes down to wealth and power. Rome did not genuinely feel threatened by Carthage; it simply wanted the resources available in that geographic location. This historic pattern has been repeated countless times since.

References

Appian. Roman History, Book VIII, p. 515.

Imperialism and Self-Defense. "Chapter 4: The Wars of 219–70 B.C.," p. 236.

Walsh, P.G. "Massinissa." The Journal of Roman Studies 55(1/2), pp. 149–60.

Pliny. Natural History, Book XV, 75–77, p. 341.

Diodorus of Sicily. Book XXXII, 6.2–4.