Rwandan Genocide: Causes, Consequences, and History

Introduction

A simple mention of the term "Rwandan genocide" spurs chills in anyone who properly understands world history. The feeling is even more intense among members of the international community and the senior officials of the UN Security Council who, despite receiving advance warning of the possible mass execution of Tutsis by Hutu extremists, chose to do nothing to prevent or mitigate it. Their inaction led to the cold-blooded massacre of over 800,000 civilians within a three-month span — one of the most horrifying events of the post-cold war period. The United States, for instance, chose to steer clear of any involvement, with then-President Bill Clinton advising the UN Security Council against deploying additional troops to Rwanda — a decision he has since described as "one of the greatest regrets of his presidency."¹

There is no doubt that hundreds of lives would have been saved if the international community had played a more active role. What is less clear, however, is how people could be driven to harbor such intense hatred that they would turn against neighbors they had lived alongside for years, slaughtering them mercilessly with knives and machetes. This paper provides some insight into that question by showing that the ethnic tension between the Tutsi and Hutu was not spontaneous. Rather, it grew over time from the colonial period and was exacerbated by a combination of historical and economic factors.

Before embarking on the main discussion, it is useful to first provide a clear definition of the term "genocide" as used in this paper, followed by a brief background of the genocide in Rwanda.

Genocide Defined

The term "genocide" is derived from two Greek words: genos, meaning race, and cide, meaning killing.² It refers broadly to any act aimed at destroying, in whole or in part, a religious, racial, ethnic, or national group. It can take several forms, including: (i) forcibly transferring the target group's children to another group; (ii) imposing measures aimed at preventing births within the target group; (iii) inflicting conditions designed to cause the physical destruction of the group's members; and (iv) killing members of the target group.³ Rwanda's case qualifies as genocide because extermination plans against Tutsis were made well before April 1994, and predictions of the killings were documented years before the actual events occurred.⁴

For a deeper examination of how genocide is defined and prosecuted internationally, scholars have long debated the threshold between mass atrocity and legally recognized genocide.

Background of the Rwandan Genocide

In April 1994, Hutu militiamen affiliated with the ruling National Republican Democratic Movement Party (MRND) initiated a genocide against the Tutsi, who were also the country's minority, comprising barely 10% of the population.⁵ By June, they had killed almost 800,000 Tutsis, and approximately 100,000 Hutus had died in retaliatory attacks. The events leading up to the attack, however, date back to 1959, when Hutu extremists orchestrated a revolution that not only drove the Tutsi — then the country's rulers — out of power, but also killed 20,000 of their members and forced hundreds of others into exile in Uganda.⁶

This group of exiled Tutsis reorganized in Uganda and became the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF). Led by Paul Kagame, the RPF launched a successful invasion of the country in 1990 with two main objectives: (i) to pressure the MRND regime, then under President Juvénal Habyarimana, to democratize and permit multiple political parties; and (ii) to end the discrimination and deprivation being directed at Tutsis by the ruling regime.⁷ The government mounted a campaign against the RPF between 1990 and 1993, orchestrating a series of killings and small massacres against the Tutsi minority. Despite this, the RPF found it relatively easy to win public support, because by that point President Habyarimana had lost the confidence of much of the population — both Hutu and Tutsi — who blamed him for the continuing repression and corruption of his government.

In 1993, the Arusha Accord was signed, under which the MRND would share power with the RPF.⁸ President Habyarimana was reluctant to implement the agreement, however, and on April 6, 1994, his plane was shot down in an unprecedented attack. This event marked the beginning of the genocide by Hutu-affiliated groups, who blamed the Tutsi-led RPF for the president's death.⁹

Historical Factors Behind Ethnic Tension

From the background presented above, it is evident that the genocide was fueled by ethnic hatred between the Hutu and Tutsi. The underlying causes of this hatred — and thus the underlying causes of the genocide itself — are the focus of this section. They are organized into two categories: historical factors and economic factors.

The Hutu-Tutsi rivalry dates back to the colonial era, when imperialist powers enacted a series of controversial policies that caused deep divisions within Rwandan society. Rwanda, which prior to World War I had been a German colony, was placed under Belgian rule in the 1920s after the German Empire was stripped of its colonies. During their rule, the Belgians showed outright favoritism toward the Tutsi and used them to exercise indirect control over Rwanda.¹⁰ Because the Tutsi were primarily livestock herders — and livestock were considered more valuable than crops — the Belgians regarded them as superior to the Twa and the Hutu majority, who were mainly crop farmers. Consequently, the Belgians used the Tutsi to oppress the Hutu.¹¹

The colonial authorities supported the Tutsi monarchy and used it to implement a divide-and-rule strategy. They ensured that all local chief positions were held by Tutsis, making them the visible symbols of colonial rule — at the direct expense of the Hutu majority. This arrangement bred deep resentment, particularly between Hutus and Tutsis.

Belgian rulers also believed that, beyond their economic standing, the Tutsi were biologically superior to the Hutu and the Twa. The Tutsi were generally taller, with relatively narrow facial features — characteristics the Belgians associated with ancient Egyptian lineage. The imperialists believed these physical traits not only distinguished them from other Sub-Saharan African populations but also justified treating them differently. The preferential treatment accorded to Tutsis by Belgian colonists inflated Tutsi cultural identity while systematically crushing that of the Hutu, eventually fostering a deep and resentful inferiority complex.

Compounding this resentment was the colonial administration's introduction of identity cards that classified each person by ethnicity — whether Twa, Hutu, or Tutsi. This policy created a sub-national ethnic identity, formally dividing the nation along racial lines and placing some groups in positions of authority over others. It further deepened the bitterness already threatening the peaceful coexistence of Rwanda's communities.

Research has shown that prior to the colonial period, members of the two communities lived peacefully together, shared a common language and way of life, and even intermarried. The history of Rwanda before European colonization reflects a society in which Hutu and Tutsi identities, while present, were far more fluid and less antagonistic. With colonialism, however, the preferential treatment of Tutsis entrenched divisions that grew steadily more dangerous, ultimately culminating in the mass murder of the very people the Hutu had once considered neighbors.

Conclusion

The Rwandan genocide stands as one of the most horrifying mass killing events of the post-cold war period. Approximately 800,000 Tutsis and 100,000 Hutus were killed in a matter of months, driven by ethnic hatred that was itself the product of interlocking historical and economic forces. Belgian colonial policies entrenched racial divisions that had not previously defined Rwandan society, while decades of population pressure, food scarcity, and land competition created conditions ripe for political exploitation. In the end, the survivors were left nursing deep physical and psychological scars, thousands of children were left without homes or parents, and the nation as a whole was left struggling to rebuild a severely damaged economy. Understanding how ordinary people were turned into perpetrators of mass violence remains essential — not only for Rwanda's ongoing healing, but for the prevention of future atrocities worldwide.