The Troubles in Northern Ireland: Causes and Legacy

Introduction to the Troubles

The Troubles in Northern Ireland represent an era of political and ethnic conflict that involved England and the Republic of Ireland. Though the origins of the Troubles date to religious and social conflict that pervaded the island during the seventeenth century, and to violent conflict during the early part of the twentieth century, the period is widely considered to have lasted from the late 1960s until the restoration of peaceful self-government in the 1990s.

The conflict has its basis in the political and economic independence of Northern Ireland and the religious differences between union-seeking Protestants and Catholic nationalists. Violence was the primary characteristic of the Troubles. Deliberate campaigns were organized by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) with the aim of eliminating British presence in Northern Ireland and reuniting Ireland as a discrete, independent nation. On the other hand, the Ulster Volunteer Force sought to maintain unity under the United Kingdom. Predominantly Protestant, the Ulster Volunteer Force was formed in response to the perceived erosion of British identity in the northern counties of Ireland. Though they drew the sympathy of the British government, they acted independently, and the focus of their enmity was the IRA.

For their part, British officials were primarily interested in maintaining lawfulness in Northern Ireland and preserving the opportunity for self-government by Northern Irish citizens. However, the IRA construed this position as tantamount to the occupation of their sovereign land. The Irish Constitution failed to recognize Northern Ireland as an independent state. Therefore, British intrusion — conducted in the name of union within the United Kingdom and bearing a clearly anti-Catholic posture — was considered an act of violence by IRA members. Their response, and that of the Ulster forces in turn, resulted in bloodshed for much of the thirty years during which the Troubles spanned.

The Ulster Volunteer Force and the IRA

The Ulster Volunteer Force is a patently illegal military and terrorist organization. They formed in 1966 in response to the growing perception in Northern Ireland that the IRA was gaining momentum, and to fears that Irish reunification was on the horizon. Their formation coincided with the 50th anniversary of the Easter Rising — an ill-fated uprising in Dublin that had the lasting effect of bringing the need for Irish independence to the forefront of public policy in the United Kingdom. Most historians consider this moment to mark the beginning of the Troubles.

The Ulster Volunteer Force initiated a prolonged campaign of intimidation against Catholic leaders and Catholic-owned businesses in Northern Ireland. This campaign began with graffiti and vandalism but devolved into homicides of prominent Catholics. Ulster leaders summarily claimed responsibility for the acts of violence and declared IRA members to be enemies. Executions of Catholic business leaders, minor bomb explosions, and sabotage directed at infrastructure elements such as electrical stations and water pipelines continued throughout the late 1960s. Among the Ulster Volunteer Force's objectives was the hope that acts of public sabotage would be blamed on the IRA, thereby undermining its political power throughout Northern Ireland.

The opposing forces of the IRA had long fought for Irish independence and had generations of loyal contributors. The IRA was also an illegal paramilitary organization, though its goals for Irish freedom and its role in past conflicts against British interests made it a substantial part of Irish culture. The IRA was instrumental in the Easter Rising and declared itself a legitimate army in its aftermath. It also waged a well-organized guerrilla warfare campaign against the British Army during the Irish War of Independence. Strictly pro-Catholic, the IRA maintained a long-standing tradition of violent opposition to British and Protestant presence in Ireland. The IRA opposed British interests and pro-Union sentiments in the northern Irish counties in the years leading up to the Troubles. However, the general economic prosperity that followed World War II, combined with shifting political interests, helped to mitigate the IRA's violent ambitions until the turbulent 1960s.