China's Three Gorges Dam: History, Controversy, and Impact
This paper examines the history and ongoing controversy surrounding China's Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, one of the largest hydroelectric projects ever undertaken. Beginning with Sun Yat-sen's 1919 proposal and tracing debates through the Mao era, economic reforms, and into the early 2000s, the paper covers the dam's stated benefits—flood control, energy generation, and improved navigation—alongside serious objections from engineers, environmentalists, archaeologists, human rights advocates, and foreign governments. It also addresses international financial decisions by the U.S. Export-Import Bank and the World Bank, the jailing of critics, and unresolved questions about construction quality, resettlement, and environmental damage.
- Introduction: The Scale and Purpose of the Three Gorges Dam: Dam's massive scale, cost, and stated goals
- Historical Background and Early Debates: Origins from 1919 through repeated construction starts and stops
- Opposition, Criticism, and Government Response: Critics jailed as resettlement and construction pressed forward
- Arguments For and Against the Dam: Energy, shipping, and flood benefits weighed against pollution risks
- International Financial and Political Reactions: US and World Bank withdraw financial support amid controversy
- Environmental Enforcement and the Road Ahead: Regulators challenge dam operators; future remains uncertain
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What makes this paper effective
- It presents multiple competing perspectives—government proponents, engineers, environmentalists, journalists, and international financial institutions—giving the analysis breadth and balance.
- It grounds abstract policy debate in concrete human consequences: the displacement of 1.9 million people, the deaths from a collapsed bridge, and the jailing of journalists who criticized the project.
- The chronological structure makes a complex, decades-long controversy easy to follow without oversimplifying the political and technical issues involved.
Key academic technique demonstrated
The paper demonstrates effective use of source synthesis to build a cumulative argument. Rather than relying on a single source for each claim, it draws from government reports, advocacy organizations, and journalistic accounts to show that opposition to the dam was not fringe but widespread and multi-disciplinary. The inclusion of direct quotation from journalist Jin Hui anchors the environmental critique in vivid, specific language.
Structure breakdown
The paper opens by establishing the dam's extraordinary scale and cost, then moves chronologically through its political history from 1919 to the mid-2000s. A middle section surveys the clash of pro- and anti-dam arguments. The paper then pivots to international reactions before closing with a recent enforcement action and a brief forward-looking conclusion. This arc—from origins to present consequences—gives the paper a clear narrative logic.
Introduction: The Scale and Purpose of the Three Gorges Dam
In 2009, a monumental undertaking that began in China in 1994 was planned for completion. The Three Gorges Dam project on the Yangtze River was expected to be the largest hydroelectric dam in the world. It would stretch nearly a mile across and tower 575 feet above the earth's third longest river. Its reservoir would reach over 350 miles upstream and force the displacement of close to 1.9 million people. The cost was approximated at over $24 billion (China Online). Since its conception, however, this project has caused considerable conflict. Whether it would be constructed as designed and finished by its due date was highly questionable.
The idea for the Three Gorges Dam was proposed to solve several major national problems. First, the project was seen as an important future source of energy for China's ever-expanding electrical usage. It was also expected to significantly reduce the destructive power of the Yangtze. The river's floods have caused great havoc over the millennia. During the past century alone, they claimed over one million lives and caused millions of dollars in damage (China Online).
Historical Background and Early Debates
The "father of the Chinese Republic," Sun Yat-sen, first suggested a hydroelectric dam at Three Gorges in 1919. In the mid-1950s, after destructive floods occurred along the Yangtze, Chairman Mao Tse-tung ordered feasibility studies on damming the river. The project has triggered much heated debate ever since (China Online).
Li Rui, vice minister of electric power, originally asserted that the project should be done in stages rather than as a single grandiose scheme. Smaller dams should be built initially until the country could support such an expensive enterprise, allowing technical and environmental problems to be confronted and solved as they arose (China Online).
Li Rui later reversed his position and came to believe the project would be far too costly. He argued that the dam would submerge many cities and fertile farmlands and cause calamitous flooding in the middle and lower reaches of the river during construction. On balance, it would not even contribute significantly to shipping. He was not the only one concerned. Officials from Sichuan province also objected to construction because, as their land was located upstream, they would bear most of the costs while Hubei province downstream would reap the major benefits (China Online).
The debate continued on and off for numerous years. The Yangtze Valley Planning Office, which oversaw the project, supported the dam. It held that the technical issues could be resolved and that it would be advantageous for China to possess the largest hydroelectric dam in the world. However, work stopped when an economic depression struck the country in 1960 (China Online).
Three years later, the idea was raised again when China considered constructing a "third front" of industry in the southwest. Yet the Cultural Revolution and fear of Soviet Union sabotage halted the work for another decade. In 1970, the country began work on a smaller dam downstream at Gezhouba. Technical problems and unexpected expenses caused greater concerns, and work stopped for another eight years (China Online).
In 1979, economic reforms and the desire to expand industry encouraged construction to restart. The number of critics grew. Leaders from Chongqing demanded that the dam height be raised. Some environmentalists were angered that the dam would create more problems than it solved, and they expressed concern about the destruction of natural land. Human rights activists challenged the resettlement plan. Archaeologists objected that many historical sites would end up underwater, most notably sites that are remnants of the homeland of the Ba, an ancient people who settled in the region approximately 4,000 years ago. Furthermore, a number of engineers began questioning whether the dam would adequately solve the problems it was designed to address.
Opposition, Criticism, and Government Response
Regardless of the controversy, the Chinese government discouraged all criticism and even imprisoned some activists. Resettlement moved forward, as did the work on the project. Stories of corruption and shoddy construction did not stop progress. For example, Chinese media reported several incidents in which poor construction led to disasters, including the collapse of a steel bridge in the city of Chongqing in 1999 that killed 40 people.
Journalist Dai Qing was jailed for ten months after criticizing the Three Gorges project, calling it "the most environmentally and socially destructive project in the world." She also called for a halt to construction and supported the idea of building a number of smaller, less disruptive projects on Yangtze tributaries. Another journalist, Jin Hui, wrote in a published collection of criticisms titled The River Dragon Has Come!: "By severing the mighty river and slowing the flow of its water, the dam will cause pollution from industrial and residential sources to concentrate in the river, rather than be flushed out at sea. The result will be a poisoned river" (Kennedy).
References
China Online. Three Gorges Dam Project. October 3, 2000. Retrieved February 4, 2005.
International Rivers Network. Retrieved February 4, 2005. http://www.irn.org/programs/threeg/
Kennedy, Bruce. CNN.com, China. "China's Three Gorges Dam."
Ni, Ching-Chi. Latimes.com, Los Angeles. "China Environment Agency Takes On Giant Dam Corporation." February 4, 2005. Retrieved February 5, 2005. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-dam3feb03,1,6964338.story?coll=la-headlines-world&ctrack=1&cset=true
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