Tibetan Buddhism: History, Texts, Rituals, and Beliefs

Introduction

Tibetan Buddhism has existed since at least 173 A.D., and quite possibly earlier. Rich in spirituality, history, and culture, Tibetan Buddhism is one of the most widespread religions, existing in almost every country in the world. This paper discusses the vast history of the religion and examines its texts, rituals, and other distinctive aspects to show that Tibetan Buddhism has made profound contributions to the world today.

Historical Background of Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism

Tibet, in a historical sense, was a tract of land in Central Asia covering over 2 million square kilometers. Today, however, Tibet is only half its original size and exists within what is now China, known as the "Tibetan Autonomous Region."^[1] The area remained independent until the early 1900s, when Britain and China occupied it. By 1912, Tibet had regained independence, only to lose it again to China in 1951. At that time, religious leaders such as the Dalai Lama were sent into exile, and Chinese settlers began to move into the area. Today, the Chinese outnumber Tibetans in their own country.^[2]

Tibetan Buddhism began as early as 173 A.D., when Buddhist texts and scriptures arrived in the region from India. The 28th king of Tibet, Thothori Nyantsen, was receptive to these influences, and by the third century the religious scriptures had spread to Northern Tibet. In 641, King Songtsen Gampo unified the Tibetan people and established Buddhism as the state religion. He also built 108 Buddhist temples.^[3]

In 774, Padmasambhava, a Tantric mystic, was invited by King Trisong Detsen to help resolve the tensions between Tibetan Buddhists and adherents of the original national religion, Bon. Padmasambhava successfully merged the two faiths, thereby creating what is now known as Tibetan Buddhism. He also wrote several scriptures and established the Nyingma School, from which all Tibetan Buddhist schools are now derived.^[4]

Throughout the 11th century, Tibetan Buddhism held a strong influence over much of Central Asia, particularly in Mongolia and Manchuria, where both dynasties adopted it as the national religion. However, as these lands were taken over by Chinese forces, that influence began to fade — a process hastened by the exile of most Tibetan religious leaders and many political figures.^[5]

Sacred Texts: The Tibetan Buddhist Canon

By the 14th century, Tibetan Buddhist monks had translated all Buddhist religious texts into the Tibetan language. These translations, which still exist today, are in some cases the only surviving versions of those works, as the original Sanskrit documents were lost over the centuries.^[6]

The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a vast collection of thousands of individual texts written over several thousand years. These texts include not only the original Foundational Buddhist scriptures, but also those from Buddhist schools such as the Sarvastivada and Mahayana traditions, as well as the Tantric texts of Padmasambhava.^[7] After undergoing a final compilation in the 14th century, the canon was divided into two parts: the Kanjyur and the Tenjyur.^[8]

The Kanjyur (or Skagyur in Tibetan) consists of the canonical texts of Tibetan Buddhism. Comprising nearly 100 volumes and containing some 600 texts, the Kanjyur was originally published in China in 1411 and was not printed in Tibet until 1731. The Tenjyur (or Bstangyur in Tibetan) consists of semi-canonical commentaries and treatises by Buddhist masters. Containing over 3,500 texts across 224 volumes, the Tenjyur is divided into three parts: the Sutras (a single volume of 64 texts), the commentaries on the Tantras (86 volumes of 3,055 texts), and the commentaries on the Sutras (137 volumes of 567 texts).^[9]

Core Beliefs and the Five Dhyani Buddhas

Generally speaking, Tibetan Buddhists believe that once an individual reaches enlightenment, he or she can escape the cycle of life, death, and rebirth, and may choose to remain in the world to help others attain nirvana. Dharma protectors — beings who protect the Dharma — are a concept distinct to Tibetan Buddhism. Additionally, there are five Dhyani Buddhas in Tibetan Buddhism, each capable of overcoming a specific evil with a specific virtue:

Vairocana embodies sovereignty and is the antidote to ignorance. Akshobhya embodies steadfastness and battles anger. Ratnasambhava embodies compassion and battles desire and pride. Amitabha embodies light and is the antidote to malignancy. Finally, Amogasiddha embodies dauntlessness and battles envy.^[10]

The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

Tibetan Buddhism is grounded in the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to enlightenment. The first noble truth is the existence of suffering — that birth, death, disease, old age, and the absence of what we desire are all painful. The second noble truth is the cause of suffering: the craving of desire. The third noble truth is the cessation of suffering; to be free of suffering, one must relinquish craving so that no passion or desire remains. The fourth noble truth is the end of pain through the Eightfold Path.^[11]

The Eightfold Path is, according to Tibetan Buddhism, the way to reach nirvana. First, one must accept the noble truths. Second, one must renounce pleasure and hold no ill will toward others. Third, one must not slander or abuse anyone. Fourth, one must not destroy living creatures, steal, or commit unlawful sexual acts. Fifth, one must earn a living through an occupation that harms no one. Sixth, one must strive to avoid evil. Seventh, one must be observant, strenuous, alert, contemplative, and free of sorrow. Finally, one must practice meditation.^[12]

There are five basic precepts that Tibetan Buddhists must follow. These are included in the path to nirvana but also encompass obligations tied to the steps of the path that are not stated directly. First, Buddhists should not kill any living thing. Second, they should not steal. Third, they must not commit adultery. Fourth, they must not lie. Fifth, they must not take intoxicants or drugs.^[13]