Vietnam's Ethnic Minority Policy, 1975–2000: Analysis

Overview of Minority Policy, 1975–2000

This paper provides an analysis and evaluation of the role ethnic affairs played in Vietnamese governance from 1975 to 2000. These years are significant because they represent a period in which the Vietnamese government moved from supporting greater autonomy among minorities to adopting policies that promoted a unified state — one in which ethnic minorities and nationalities were encouraged to maintain their unique cultural and traditional practices, provided those practices did not conflict with the government's unified front.

This policy adaptation did not initially go well, causing considerable unrest — particularly among smaller groups of ethnic minorities living in mountainous areas. For some time there was great disparity involving the Chinese and Hoa communities, who harbored some aggression toward the Vietnamese government, even though these groups represented a rather large portion of the ethnic minority population in Vietnam. However, as this paper demonstrates, that disparity tended to dissolve toward the 1990s. Shifting policies led to greater economic prosperity and may lead to a reduction in poverty and greater representation of other minorities in the years ahead.

Mackerras (2005) provides an overview of policies toward minorities in Southeast Asia just south of China, where the minority population is relatively small but significant, as minorities comprise more than 50% of the territory (Banister, 1992) and thus have a considerable impact on Vietnamese state policy (Mackerras, 2003). Many scholars compare Chinese policies to Vietnamese policies when examining ethnic minorities in Vietnam, as it is clear that Vietnam has been substantially influenced by Chinese culture. This influence has not always been perceived as positive — particularly throughout the early 1980s — however, changing ideologies during the 1990s led to greater acceptance of the Chinese as an influential minority community in Vietnam in more recent years, contributing to greater economic prosperity and the potential for other minority groups to gain visibility in the near future.

The years between 1975 and 2000 are significant in that it was during this time that the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) established the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) (Mackerras, 2005, p. 85). During the first years under VCP rule, considerable conflict and unease existed regarding ethnic affairs and policymaking. Many foreign countries viewed Vietnam as hostile during this time, in part due to the VCP's invasion of neighboring countries, including Cambodia (Mackerras, 2005). However, during the 1990s, formal relationships were restored between Vietnam and the United States during a period of rapid economic growth. It is important to note that it was also during this time that the Vietnamese worked to restore stronger relationships with Chinese minority groups living in the country. Such dramatic changes produced positive outcomes for Vietnam, as this analysis will discuss further.

Ethnic affairs influencing government policy in the early years included "peasant unrest" in northern provinces such as Thai Binh, due in part to theft and corruption, as noted by Mackerras (2005, p. 91). The government at the time sided with protesters and campaigned alongside ethnic minorities to support a state it described as favoring the "people" and their "mastery" — a stance many consider characteristic of the "ideological" policies held by the VCP (Mackerras, 2005, p. 86). The adoption of the "unified" front initially caused greater unrest and deteriorating living conditions among ethnic minorities; yet today this ideological policy has led to more equitable distributions of resources among ethnic minorities living in Vietnam. To understand this further, it is important to examine the strengths and weaknesses of Vietnam's policies from 1975 through 2000.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Unified State Approach

Mackerras (2005) notes there are currently about 54 ethnic groups comprising the culture of Vietnam, with the Kinh dominant in most regions. Other lowland groups, as described by Mackerras (2005) and Banister (1992), include the Chinese and the Hoa, as well as some Cambodians and Cham (p. 86). Chinese ethnic groups tend to live in more urban areas. The sheer diversity of ethnic minorities living in Vietnam is partly responsible for the government's shifting policies — from supporting greater autonomy to supporting greater unity. In a country where so many ethnic minorities live in close quarters, recognition of one's autonomy is important, but dependence on fragmented autonomy is not necessarily beneficial to the economy. With so many groups present and without a unified front, there is a stronger likelihood of what Mackerras frequently describes as peasant "uprisings," as various ethnic minorities attempt to establish greater dominance or influence within their regions.

Good and Bad Policy Changes

Many policy changes occurred in Vietnam under the socialist republic (Mackerras, 2003). In the mid-1970s, for example, the government abolished autonomous areas in northern Vietnam and sent Vietnamese nationals to these areas, emphasizing "the goal of a unified country or a whole country" — a policy many initially considered unwise (Mackerras, 2005, p. 90). Policymakers had to address questions about minority nationalities and whether they should be integrated into the political and economic framework of the country, again with the emphasis placed on national unity. The government did not at this time appear to emphasize autonomy or independence. This is not surprising given Vietnam's history of "insurgency," especially among smaller ethnic minority groups including those living in the mountains and those of Chinese descent (Mackerras, 2005). Many Vietnamese officials seemed quick to blame the Chinese for "stirring up trouble" among minorities and suggesting that life in China was better than life in Vietnam (Mackerras, 2005, p. 91). Such accusations reflect how governments, when attempting to secure their sovereignty, often seek a scapegoat to blame for the unrest that accompanies efforts to establish peace and prosperity.

Mackerras (2005) summarizes government policies related to ethnic minorities during the 1980s as follows: (1) the Socialist Republic was "unified" in character and incorporated all nationalities living within its territory; (2) all minorities had equal rights and obligations under this governing framework; (3) the state would work to protect and consolidate greater unity among nationalities, restricting prejudiced behaviors and discord; and (4) nationalities should have the right to use their native languages and preserve their customs and traditions (Mackerras, 2005, p. 92).

What is weak about these policies is the mechanism the government relied on to enforce the unified state — military force that many viewed as extreme. Although the government's policies claimed to support various cultural traditions among nationalities, they did not appear to tolerate religious or ethnic bodies unless their objectives and intentions were aligned with those of the primary government (Mackerras, 2005). This is not a policy that genuinely promotes unity; rather, it is one that supports reduced autonomy and greater control under a centralized, authoritarian government.

Policies later shifted to reflect economic dissatisfaction and dissent among minorities during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with minorities attempting to gain greater representation in government (Mackerras, 2005). Perhaps the largest criticism of Vietnamese policy during this time is that, despite the stated motivation to create a unified state, policies did not successfully halt or prevent ethnic problems and insurgencies among varying nationalities. This led to rebellions that persisted throughout the 1980s, undermining leadership and representation and producing economic unrest among minority groups. However, given the extraordinary diversity of minority populations present in Vietnam, such rebellions are perhaps inevitable during periods of forced consolidation.

Other notable developments during the period under review include the abolishment of capitalist trade during the late 1970s in Ho Chi Minh City and in southern cities (Mackerras, 2005, p. 93). During this time, "state-run trading dominated policies," and the "abolishment of capitalist trade" devastated many of the Chinese living in Ho Chi Minh City, given that they had made their livelihood as capitalist traders (Mackerras, 2005, p. 92). Many Chinese felt they were mistreated during this time. The Vietnamese government, however, characterized such accusations from the Hoa as rumor and framed China itself as a threat — specifically the threat of large-scale war — as its reasoning for expelling many Chinese from Vietnam at the time. These tensions led many ethnic minorities to flee to China.

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