Visual Arts in Christian Liturgy: Icons, Catacombs, and Worship

Introduction: Art, Scripture, and the Liturgical Tradition

Christian art's rich history goes as far back as the 3rd century A.D. Ever since the first paintings were done on catacomb walls, Christians have endeavored to use visible means for expressing the invisible Almighty. Despite Christianity's origins lying in Judaism — which forbids such imagery — the concept of the Incarnation made it essential to portray God's human face in Jesus. The intent was never mere portraiture. However, an image capable of opening the soul, mind, and heart in a manner that enlivened understanding and faith was critical for several centuries. Through it, the Church successfully established itself as a major patron of the arts. Pope Benedict XVI (formerly Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger) draws on the richness of Christian iconography, a tradition for which he holds deep appreciation, demonstrating that the Gospels are preached via both spoken words and imagery. Artists of every era have conveyed the essential facts pertaining to the mystery of salvation to believers' wonder and contemplation, representing them through the brilliance of color and the precision of beauty. Art demonstrates how, in the modern culture of imagery especially, sacred images are able to express far more than words alone, and how they serve as a highly dynamic and effective means of conveying God's message. Within Christian places of worship and the experiences of small worshipping communities, images are able to reinforce appreciation of the Gospel among followers of Christ more powerfully than ever before (McCarthy 2011; Webber n.d.; Dillenberger 1986).

To assess the significance of scriptural visual arts in liturgy and church service, it is first necessary to define liturgy and then to establish the existence of art in the Old and New Testaments, which lends it a measure of divine authority through its connection to God. The term liturgy implies the combination of rites through which individual communities express their relationship with the Lord, generating art — indeed, liturgy itself is art. In certain cultures, creativity in liturgical service was regarded as God's gift (Verdon 2007). The New Testament cites St. Paul as stating that Jesus is the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15), or the invisible Father's incarnate "icon," and consequently such images carry all the more significance. Imagery within the Old Testament was symbolic of the Lord's presence, while within the New Testament the concept of art declares that God's Kingdom is at hand. When employed in the liturgical context, art becomes an encounter in the same way that one encounters Jesus in the Christian sacraments, which early theologians regarded as images. This strong theological exegesis offers a solid foundation for the use of imagery by the oldest Christian churches in encouraging the development and propagation of God's message.

Now that a sound argument has been established for religious imagery's existence and continued use, this paper will address three concepts of art in Christianity together with their application in liturgical and church service. First, it will explore the oldest recorded Christian art found in catacombs — particularly in Rome — and examine how this underground art form could serve the Church in proclaiming God's message. This investigation will briefly address the issue of idolatry. Second, the paper will examine the use of visual imagery in order to assess and understand its contemporary application. Finally, it will evaluate the use of icons as prayer aids and in liturgy (Moore 2010).

Narrowly, one can observe that the Bible does not contain art per se, although its King James Version refers to "art" three times: Acts 17:29, 1 Chronicles 16:14, and Exodus 30:25. Interestingly, the latter two references relate to the apothecary's skill. It is only in Acts that visual art is directly addressed: "Forasmuch then as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device" (Acts 17:29). Yet if one expands the meaning of art, it becomes clear that Scripture is filled with colorful imagery from beginning to end — abundant in its graphic descriptions of people, events, and landscapes, composed in words that readily appeal to the reader's imagination (Moore 2010).

Idolatry and the Theological Debate over Visual Imagery

Prior to examining biblical visual arts, a brief discussion of idolatry is essential. The issue springs from the account in Exodus which states that while Moses was away on Mount Sinai conversing with God for an extended period, the Israelites grew restless and fashioned a golden calf to worship (Exodus 32:1–10). In doing so, they disobeyed God's command not to make carved images of earthly or heavenly things to serve or bow down to (Exodus 20:4–5).

Christian Reformers carefully analyzed church history and Scripture, rejecting all illustrative (or didactic) as well as cultic (or devotional) applications of visual arts in worship. They permitted only the careful application of decorative artwork. Their opposition to the liturgical or cultic use of visual arts begins with the Second Commandment. They argued that Christians must hold to this principle, maintaining that God's glory is corrupted by impious falsehood if any form is attached to Him. They identified no fewer than four key reasons why God has prohibited the creation of visual images to represent Him:

1) Imagery implies that God's revealed word is insufficient. The Almighty forbids image-making in the Second Commandment because He chose to use words to reveal Himself. 2) Adopting imagery leads to idolatry. The practice of idolatry is inherent to images, since physical forms prove inadequate in representing God. As God himself asks (Isaiah 40:18), both image and concept are misrepresentative and inadequate — they teach lies (Habakkuk 2:18). Mankind cannot capture God's "incomprehensible essence" in material form. 3) Image-making in worship violates Scripture. In the Reformers' view, this is perhaps the most critical concern of all: Scripture outlaws images. Aside from the passages already cited, Christian Reformers quote God's prophets, who level devastating attacks on idolatry (e.g., Isaiah 40:18–20; 41:7, 29; 44:12–17; 45:9; 46:5–7), as well as the Psalms that join in scorning imagery (e.g., Psalms 78:58; 96:5; 97:7; 115:4; 135:15). Sculpture or paintings fail if they try to represent the Almighty. Silver, gold, or stone do not suffice. Human "thought" and "art" can do Him no justice. 4) Finally, images are a distraction. The only visual aids God himself has provided the Church are the living, symbolic ones — the rites of Christ's Supper and Baptism. Images arising from "human ingenuity" are worldly things that distract worshippers' attention from God-ordained means of grace: prayer, the Word, and the sacraments (Johnson n.d.; Forrester and Gay 2009).

However, numerous passages exist in that very same Old Testament in which God commands the construction of images directly linked to His presence — among them, the previously mentioned sanctuary (Exodus 25–26). This apparent contradiction can be addressed as follows: God cannot be seen, and His invisibility is precisely why creating His image would seem impossible. Moreover, the fundamental issue is that mankind is to worship only one God. In Christianity, images are not worshipped as such; rather, Christians revere them for whom or what they represent. Christians are not worshipping these images but are using them as prayer devices to draw closer to God on a spiritual level.

In furthering the claim that Christian artworks, when used properly, do not constitute idolatry, it is worth noting that according to legend, Jesus himself miraculously created the first Christian icon — a self-portrait not made by human hands — on a piece of cloth for the healing of King Abgar of Edessa (Tarasov and Milner-Gulland 2002). Though it has remained a subject of considerable controversy and debate, the Shroud of Turin could be another miraculous image of Jesus produced after his death and entombment (Moore 2010).

Christian Art in the Roman Catacombs

Christian burials offer tangible proof of Western Christian art that may be traced back to the catacombs of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, particularly in Rome. Some church-owned cemeteries controlled by the ecclesiastical hierarchy portray biblical scenes. Meanwhile, other private crypts — usually owned by Roman gentry and affluent families — included more personalized frescoes depicting individual beliefs, whether pagan or religious. The major part of surviving biblical imagery carries sacramental themes, often relating to the Eucharist or Baptism. The former is occasionally represented using simple bread and wine, but more frequently through a banquet scene representing, for instance, the Wedding Feast at Cana (John 2:1–11). These images clearly show that the Eucharist sacrament was a key liturgical theme from the very earliest origins of the Church (O'Kane 2008).

The question that must be addressed is: in what way can underground art forms serve the Church? Since their presence is virtually hidden within crypts, their effectiveness might seem restricted. Modern scholars suggest that images inscribed in catacombs served a funereal purpose — the visualization of the beliefs and hopes of Christians who died "in Christ." The age-old Roman tradition of organizing banquets at deceased family members' graves endured even after conversion to Christianity, ultimately becoming a key aspect of the martyr cult. Thus, it is held that such banquets were held not for the broader Christian community but for those attending the funeral rites of the deceased. An alternative hypothesis is that the crypts formed a refuge for Roman Christians during periods of persecution, and that such imagery offered them true knowledge about their Lord, helping believers to maintain their faith (Moore 2010).

From a technical perspective, Early Christian painters and sculptors used a highly symbolic and synthetic figurative vocabulary. The narrative core of biblical episodes was reduced to only the essentials, so that paintings focused on no more than a few figures linked to characteristic attributes and signs. Additionally, the scenes were typically small-scale, as spaces in catacombs for wall decoration consisted of continuous lines making up fairly small geometrical segments. Any study of symbolic Early Christian artworks must attend carefully to both formal aspects and archaeological context, as well as to the significance of such works as concrete, tangible expressions of Christian belief. This is particularly true when evaluating the relationship between the Bible and Christian art — a relationship that cannot be confined solely to the canonical biblical books (O'Kane 2008).

Conclusion

Over time, the presence and use of religious visual art in church service and liturgy has remained a controversial subject. While Christian art can be encouraged since it broadens an understanding of Scripture and facilitates celebration of God's Word, bringing us nearer to Him, some contend that as God's face can never be seen, one should not try to create misleading images of Him. On the particular issues of crucifixion imagery and icons, we have observed how inscriptions have been altered to better reflect theological understanding. Reformers present the opposing argument: icons and images are not necessary to the Church, which could be effectively served by good preachers and the Word of God alone (Dawtry and Irvine 2002).

Moreover, it is claimed that theology ought to shape Christian art; but if so many icons and images have emerged since the earliest Christianity, the question arises of whether artists — influenced by art rather than God's Word — risk informing and subsequently shaping theology in ways that might mislead the faithful. On balance, the continued use of icons and images in both Western and Eastern Christianity across two millennia apparently supports the argument that the application of appropriate and suitable biblical visuals contributes significantly to liturgical and church service (Moore 2010).

The recognition and precise definition of the conditions under which biblical episodes or figures may appropriately appear in sculptural or pictorial repertory is clearly of great importance (Roberts 2010). Summarizing the points already indicated: one must first emphasize the desire to reassert the continuity of the Old and New Testaments from a salvific standpoint. Second, considerable emphasis must be given to the Eucharist and Baptism — sacraments that can be connected directly to the New Testament text. Finally, attention must be given to identifying the sources from which iconographers and their patrons draw individual themes (O'Kane 2008).