Western Imperial Takeover of the Non-Western World, 1870–1914

Introduction to European Imperialism

In the period between 1870 and 1914, Western powers took over the main portions of the non-Western world, generating considerable discussion and debate regarding the causes of this takeover. Despite the controversies surrounding these decisions, the Western powers were motivated by various factors. This phenomenon is commonly known as imperialism, or European imperialism. The term imperialism refers to the process of expanding one state's control over another through various forms. Two of the major forms that characterize this takeover are direct rule and indirect rule. Direct rule involved annexing territories outright and subjugating the people living within them. Indirect rule, by contrast, was a process whereby Western powers reached agreements with local leaders and governed through those arrangements. Regardless of the form it took, the takeover of the non-Western world by Western powers attracted enormous debate and controversy.

Forms and Historical Development of Imperialism

European imperialism, or the takeover by Western powers, took varying forms that are historically interrelated. Direct rule amounted to a wholesale appropriation of territory through the demographic and political displacement of a region's previous occupants. Indirect rule, on the other hand, involved controlling societies or territories whose populations remained on their land, though those societies were fundamentally reshaped. The takeover of the non-Western world by Western powers therefore involved either territorial appropriation or demographic displacement, or some combination of both.

The differences in the methods of takeover contributed to a classification of imperialism into two major categories. The first is known as formal imperialism, characterized by colonial rule over largely indigenous populations without geographic displacement of those populations ("Economic Imperialism," p. 1). While this type of imperialism can be traced back to 1765, when the British East India Company established control over Bengal's land revenue, it was widely used between 1870 and 1914 by Western powers in their takeover of the non-Western world. The second category, informal imperialism, involves the use of force to secure territories or open foreign markets. Its origins can be traced to the fifteenth century, where it was applied in Portuguese expansion, and it was later practiced in the seventeenth century by the French, English, and Dutch through armed seaborne trading networks along the African and Asian coasts.

Although these forms of imperialism have long-standing histories, they expanded dramatically in the nineteenth century. One of the most significant examples of formal imperialism was the Scramble for Africa between 1875 and 1902, through which Europeans secured approximately 90% of the African continent (Coffin & Stacey, p. 524). Formal imperialism was also widely practiced between 1870 and 1900, during which a small group of Western powers — including Germany and the United States — colonized roughly 25% of the Earth's land surface.

France, Russia, Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States extended informal empire into Turkey, China, Central and South America, and South and East Asia. This expansion contributed to the emergence of the concept of neo-imperialism, though the concept was not entirely new. Imperialism — or the takeover of the non-Western world by Western powers — can be regarded as a new means of European empire-building following the disintegration of Europe's initial modern empires in North and South America by the end of the eighteenth century.

Nineteenth-century imperialism emerged against the backdrop of liberal revolution, industrialization, and the development of nation-states. Notably, most of these Western powers were, in principle, democratic countries where the government exercised authority based on consent and the concept of civic equality. While the Western powers harbored ambitious goals that fueled the takeover, they encountered resistance from local indigenous populations. That resistance helped shape the history of colonialism just as much as the ambitious plans of the Western powers themselves.

Reasons for the Takeover

The conquest of the non-Western world was complicated by the fact that the Western powers were primarily democratic nations whose governance rested on the ideas of civic equality and consent. These powers stated various reasons for their takeover, though their actions generated sharp questions — particularly about the status of colonized peoples. Some of the reasons attributed to the takeover include a missionary passion to convert people to Christianity, social reform objectives, and investment in infrastructure. However, the two main reasons were economic gain and the pursuit of world power status.

Economic Purposes Behind Imperial Expansion

One of the major reasons that fueled the takeover of the non-Western world by Western powers was economic gain. The nature of colonial imperialism in the nineteenth century changed significantly because industrialization heavily influenced the motives behind expansion. Before this period, the emergence of imperialism in the early 1500s was driven by three major factors — God, gold, and glory — which led Western powers to extend their influence across the globe ("European Imperial Expansion," par. 1). The economically driven imperialism of the nineteenth century was also geared toward expanding European civilization to such a degree that European culture would achieve dominance over approximately 85% of the entire world.

The influence of economic motives on European imperialism is evident in the way the Industrial Revolution generated demand for new resources and markets. Western powers sought to take over the non-Western world in response to the growing economic competition produced by the spread of industrialization. These countries experienced an economically unsettled period in the 1860s that contributed to a major depression in 1873. Industrial nations were further strained by their dependence on imported raw materials and the negative effects on their balance of trade. The rise of economic competition from industrialized and industrializing nations such as Germany accelerated the push toward imperial expansion.

Economic purposes are widely considered the primary driver of European imperialism because colonies served as potential markets for manufactured goods, sources of raw materials, and outlets for surplus populations (Mills, par. 17). Proponents of imperialism among Western powers regularly used economic arguments to justify policies of empire-building and imperial expansion. Leopold, King of the Belgians, for example, argued that colonies were the main source of Britain's economic wealth and power.

A major illustration of economically motivated imperialism is the case of imperialism in China, which began before the onset of the new imperialism. Although Western powers did not conquer and occupy entire Chinese regions, they forced advantageous trade agreements at gunpoint. Prior to nineteenth-century European imperialism, trade between China and Europe had focused on luxury goods in high demand, though the Chinese government was determined to limit foreign trade and influence. Britain pursued better terms in the China trade during the imperial era by claiming special trading privileges. A second example is French colonialism in northern Africa. After France invaded Algeria, other Europeans soon outnumbered the French and carried out numerous economic activities that benefited Europe as a whole (Coffin & Stacey, p. 533).

Conclusion

The takeover of the non-Western world by Western powers is one of the major events that has had significant impacts on the history of Europe and other parts of the world. European imperialism was fueled by various factors evident across the different attempts by different Western powers to acquire more colonies. While these powers stated various justifications for their efforts, imperialism attracted enormous debate and concern throughout the world. The two primary reasons for the nineteenth-century takeover by Western powers were economic purposes — driven by industrialization, competition for resources, and the search for new markets — and the pursuit of world power status amid a rapidly shifting European political landscape.

Works Cited

"Economic Imperialism." Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press, n.d. Web. 8 May 2013.

"FC122: European Imperial Expansion in Africa (c.1870–1914)." The Flow of History: A Dynamic and Graphic Approach to Teaching History. The Flow of History, n.d. Web. 8 May 2013.

Mills, Wallace G. "European Motivations in the Scramble." The Scramble and Motivations. Saint Mary's University, n.d. Web. 8 May 2013.

Coffin, Judith, and Robert Stacey. Western Civilizations. W. W. Norton & Company.