Bilingual Education Essays (Examples)

Bilingual education should not be required in our nation's schools. This does not mean, it should be noted, that foreign language education should be banned, not that supplemental or resource room help in the English language should not be accorded to students who require such assistance. However, bilingual education programs more often than not require a long period of assimilation for students of immigrant status, or parentage, whereby part of the day is taught in English and part of the rest of the day is taught in that student's native language. It is this form of duality of educational environments that must be avoided, so children are not subjected to a further bifurcation of home and American identity, of parental and educational attitudes in culture and in language.

It is argued that it is difficult, and an added burden, for students who speak a different language in the home than…

According to Malfaro, just a single year of English is not essentially sufficient to effectively make the initiative to reading and writing. (Tozzi, 1998)

Supporters give an instance of a study undertaken in the year 1991 approved by the National Academy of Sciences mentioning that the children who have are able to speak a foreign language are able to comprehend English more quickly and perform better educational development on the whole after receiving many years of teaching in their regional language. (Leon, 2001) Jay Greene belonging to the Manhattan Institute employed more accurate statistical instruments compared to those employed in the earlier researches and discovered that bilingual education possess encouraging effects. He inferred that attempts to eradicate the use of local language in teaching does damage to the children by refuting them access to beneficial methods. Almost every researcher who has made an assessment of the scientific research has inferred…

References

Alvarez, Roberto. (2002) "Bilingual Education" St.: James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture.

Brisk, Maria Estela. (November, 1999) "Education Quality Bilingual Defining Success" Presented at the Symposium on Language Policy. Bar Ilam University, Israel.

Brisk, Maria Estela. (2000) "Defining Success: Quality Bilingual Education" LAB at Brown University.

Cummins, Jim. (9 February, 1998) "Beyond Adversarial Discourse: Searching for Common Ground in the Education of Bilingual Students. Presentation to the California State Board of Education. Sacramento, California. Retrieved at http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/cummins.htm. Accessed on 26 November, 2004

In Chapter 4 of the work the authors suggest that teachers act as catalysts, engaging students and enabling them to achieve the best use for their multiple language skills. Ovando also describes how students actively create their own cultural identity (92). They are not simply passive learners. They do this by comparing information they are receiving in the classroom with their own experiences and forming their opinions and self-image based on their cultural background and experiences as well as the experiences they reap from the environment exposed to every day. This environment a product of classroom learning and experiences.

Cultural Conflict Students Face In Schools

Bilingual and bicultural students often face much cultural conflict and unique learning challenges when in school. In fact these very challenges and conflicts influence student cognitive acquisition and language acquisition because they inhibit students from achieving their highest potential. It is important that educators acknowledge…

References

Brisk, M.E. (1998). Bilingual education: From compensatory to quality schooling.

Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Clayton J.B. (1993). Your land, my land: The process of acculturation for four international students in an elementary school setting in the United States. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University, Boston.

Conklin N.F., & Lourie M.A. (1983). A host of tongues: Language communities in the United States. New York: The Free Press.

S. is a worthwhile goal, but the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 is a poorly conceived approach whose deficiencies may actually do more to undermine many aspects of education than any meaningful improvement inspired by its programs.

eferences

Caillier, J. (2007) No Child Left Behind Act: Are States on Target to Make Their

Goals?; Journal of Negro Education, Fall 2007 Issue. etrieved September 8, 2008, at http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3626/is_200710/ai_n25139930/pg_10

Crawford, J. (2004) No Child Left Behind: Misguided Approach to School Accountability for English Language Learners. National Association for Bilingual Education. etrieved September 8, 2008, at http://www.nabe.org/documents/policy_legislation/NABE_on_NCLB.pdf

Darling-Hammond, L. (2004) NCLB Implementation Challenges: The Local Superintendent's View; Peabody Journal of Education, 80, 156-169.

Forgary, . (1997) Brain Compatible Classrooms. Andover, MA: Skylight Publishing.

Hendrie, C. (2002) Taking a Chance on Choice; Education Week, Oct 23, 2002. etrieved September 8, 2008, from www.edweek.org/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug=08choice.h22

Murray, C. (2006) Acid Tests: No Child Left Behind…

References

Caillier, J. (2007) No Child Left Behind Act: Are States on Target to Make Their

Goals?; Journal of Negro Education, Fall 2007 Issue. Retrieved September 8, 2008, at  http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3626/is_200710/ai_n25139930/pg_10 

Crawford, J. (2004) No Child Left Behind: Misguided Approach to School Accountability for English Language Learners. National Association for Bilingual Education. Retrieved September 8, 2008, at  http://www.nabe.org/ documents/policy_legislation/NABE_on_NCLB.pdf

Darling-Hammond, L. (2004) NCLB Implementation Challenges: The Local Superintendent's View; Peabody Journal of Education, 80, 156-169.

All respondents also engage in code-switching on a linguistic level to clarify meaning when referring to both stories. The linguistic responses were not culturally monolithic -- rather, bilingual speakers showed a remarkable ability to fuse the two cultures and languages in which they were fluent. Although the different English and Greek scenarios elicited different responses, when speaking about their feelings the study subjects were able to delve into both vocabularies to find the right word to express their ideas. The study suggested that "1) one's emotional reaction shifts with language (and cultural context) and (2) all emotion terms (and reactions) are available to bilingual speakers, almost regardless of the context" (Panayiotou 2004: 132). Their use of different linguistic tropes also highlighted how language and culture were inexorably intertwined, given that the subjects' expressed emotional responses were substantially different, depending on whether the scenario was presented as about a Greek or…

References

Bishop, M.M., & Peterson, M. (2010). Impact of media context on consumers' responses to code-switched advertising. Journal of Advertising, 39(3), 55-67.

Panayiotou, N. (2004). Switching code, switching codes: Bilinguals' emotional responses in English and Greek. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 25 (2&3),

124-139.

Qing, X. (2012). A tentative analysis of code-switching in college bilingual education.

Fifth, the NCLB is devoid of any meaningful consequences for failing to achieve federal objectives other than the publication of such failures in conjunction with the rights of parents to request transfers of their children to better-performing academic institutions (Darling-Hammond 2004). Critics have suggested that the most likely result of enforcement of such limited consequences for noncompliance is the overcrowding of institutions who fulfill the federal requirements to their detriment by virtue of diminution in their ability to meet the educational needs of increased enrollment of low-achieving students (Sonnenblick 2008). Likewise, the NCLB Act authorizes increased federal funding of home schooling and for-profit institutions that further reduces necessary funds to public institutions.

Sixth, whereas George H. Bush articulated the connection between adequate nutrition and access to healthcare and preparedness to learn in school, the NCLB Act ignores this element entirely. Many critics and career educators believe that any proposed educational…

References

Adams, D. & Hamm, M. (1994). New Designs for Teaching and Learning: Promoting Active Learning in Tomorrow's Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Caillier, J. (2007) No Child Left Behind Act: Are States on Target to Make Their Goals?; Journal of Negro Education, Fall 2007 Issue. Retrieved June 26, 2008, at  http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3626/is_200710/ai_n25139930/pg_10 

Crawford, J. (2004) No Child Left Behind: Misguided Approach to School Accountability for English Language Learners. National Association for Bilingual Education. Retrieved June 26, 2008, at  http://www.nabe.org/ documents/policy_legislation/NABE_on_NCLB.pdf

Darling-Hammond, L. (2004) NCLB Implementation Challenges: The Local Superintendent's View; Peabody Journal of Education, 80, 156-169. Forgary, R. (1997) Brain Compatible Classrooms. Andover, MA: Skylight Publishing.

But in any case, a shortage of qualified bilingual teachers usually makes it impossible. For example, public schools in California enrolled recently arrived immigrants from 136 different countries in 1994, but bilingual teachers were certified in only 17 languages - 96% of them in Spanish. To the extent that LEP [ESL] children received help in other tongues, they received it almost entirely from teacher aides" (Crawford, 1997, "Babel' in the Schools"). A combined blend of immersion and resource support, or a transitional approach is often necessary from an administrative and logistical as well as an ideological point-of-view -- there are simply not enough teachers.

hat approach is best?

Beyond the rhetorical fury of those who are 'English Only' advocates, devout multiculturalists, or concerned parents, it is often hard to find unbiased, quality research about the outcomes of current programs and strategies. The most sophisticated evaluation study of different approaches was…

Works Cited

Berlitz. (2007). Official Webpage. Retrieved 9 Jul 2007 at  http://www.berlitz.com/ 

Crawford, James. (1997). "Babel' in the Schools." Our World. Retrieved 9 Jul 2007 at http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/can-bil.htm

Crawford, James. (1997). "Bilingual Education." Our World. Retrieved 9 Jul 2007 at http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/biling.htm

Crawford, James. (1997). "Controversy over the National Research Council Report: Does

Biligual

The world is changing and recent influxes of immigrants into America have presented a dilemma for educators. Some believe the bilingual education is necessary for those that do not speak English as their first language; others feel that bilingual education gives people an excuse not to learn English. The purpose of this discussion is to provide a casual analysis of this issue. The discussion will begin with background information about bilingual classes. The paper will also contain a current evaluation of the situation. The discussion will also present a casual argument of the topic and a counterclaim. This discussion will seek to prove that bilingual education in its current form must be reformed or eliminated.

Background/History Bilingual Classes book entitled Bilingual Education: From Compensatory to Quality Schooling explains that bilingual education refers to "the education of children whose home language is not English." (Brisk) According to an article in…

Works Cited

Amselle, Jorge. 1997. Adios, Bilingual Ed. Policy Review. 86; 52+.

Brisk Mar'a. 1998. Bilingual Education: From Compensatory to Quality Schooling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Place of Publication: Mahwah, NJ.

Freedman, Samuel. It's Latino Speaking Parents Speaking out of Bilingual Education. The New York Times. July 14, 2004

McKeon, Denise. Different Types of ESL programs. 1987 ERIC DIGEST

teach students who first language is not English continues to be one of the most contested and misunderstood issues facing educators in the U.S. today. wo main educational philosophies and lines of research prevail. Proponents of dual language education assert that the long-term education of students benefits from a bilingual approach primarily because it facilitates cognitive development and is, thereby, a better method to address an achievement gap (Jost, 2009). he opposing educational camp argues that students whose first language is not English should be given support in their first language through bilingual education, but only for a short time (Jost, 2009). he watershed for these two approaches appears to be a long-term focus vs. A short-term focus (Jost, 2009).

he policy problem associated with English as second a language academic programs is fundamentally two-fold: o address the need for acceleration of the development of English language skills and linguistic…

The tendency is to think of bilingual education as focusing on Hispanic students, but this is decidedly a limited perspective (Haas, 2009). Students who need to learn English in order to fully participate in the schools they attend cross all grade levels (Haas, 2009). Moreover, the number of foreign languages represented in any given school can be quite large (Haas, 2009). During the time of the public brouhaha of the Umz Initiative, one teacher reported that, "I have had 32 different languages spoken in my classroom over a 25-year period. Eighty-four languages are spoken in our district" (Anonymous, 1998). With this level of diversity, teachers who are frustrated by the bureaucracy of educational institutions and the lag of simply choose to "just teach in the way that you know is effective" (Anonymous, 1998). Essentially, that means to many teachers that they must reach out to their students in whatever language makes them want to learn and be able to study (Haas, 2009).

Immersion

Assimilation is a focus for proponents of immersion programs in which students receive instruction only in English. This movement is supported by demonstrations

Curriculum and Policy

DaSilva Iddings, Combs, and Moll (2012) discuss policies surrounding English language learners in the United States (ELL). The article begins by considering the nature and prevalence of this population, postulating that students from this category have come to outnumber native English speakers in American schools. This emphasizes the importance of effective English language instruction for such learners, since it would empower them to access better opportunities in the future and to become contributing members of society. According to the authors, however, educational policy in certain states hinders the ability of these students to access adequate language learning in English.

In Arizona, for example, the policy is based upon Proposition 203, which was approved for Arizona in November 2000. This initiative essentially replaces bilingual education in the state with what was known as "Structured English Immersion (SEI), by which students are to learn English only by means of…

References

DaSilva Iddings, A.C., Combs, M.C., and Moll, L. (2012). In the Arid Zone: Drying Out Educational Resource for English Language Learners Through Policy and Practice. Urban Education, 47:495

Therefore, instead of requiring non-science majors to enroll in general studies science courses such as biology, chemistry, or "physics for non-majors," the only mandatory science instruction should be courses that relate more directly to useful information. For example, obesity is a virtual epidemic in American society; therefore, a science class in practical nutrition makes mush more sense than the traditional focus of science courses for non-majors. Similarly, computer use classes would be more useful, as would classes emphasizing the logical scientific method rather than substantive science subject matter. Perhaps if mandatory scientific courses related more directly to useful information and to beneficial intellectual processes, American presidential election politics would not feature potential candidates with college (and advanced academic) degrees who still believe that Creationism or "Intelligent Design" are more plausible explanations for the existence of human life than Darwinian evolutionary theory.

As pertains to the study of foreign languages, it…

References

Carter, J. (2001) an Hour Before Daylight: Memories of a Rural Boyhood. New York: Touchstone.

Gardner, H. (1991) the Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach. New York: Basic Books.

Gerrig, R, Zimbardo, P. (2005) Psychology and Life. 17th Edition.

New York: Allyn & Bacon.

Moreover, if a student asked to be transferred to a mainstream class he or she did not receive approval. Errors in the U.S. school system have made it possible for African-American students to be involved in bilingual classes. So far, nothing seems to be out of the ordinary, but the strange thing is that they've been put to learn alongside Chinese speaking students also involved in bilingual programs. The motive for this is that the only available places that the black students could fill had been in the Chinese bilingual classes. (Chavez & Lyons)

Parents are not willing to accept having their English-speaking children being sent to bilingual classes any more. Students that aren't literate in English or Spanish are being prevented from learning English and from fitting in the American society.

The people that are not fond of bilingual education programs claim that the theory that children have to…

Works Cited

Krashen, Stephen. "Why Bilingual Education?," Retrieved February 23, 2009, from Ericdigests Web site:  http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/bilingual.html 

Linda Chavez, and James J. Lyons, "Q: Is Bilingual Education Failing to Help America's Schoolchildren?," Insight on the News 3 June 1996, Questia, 23 Feb. 2009  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000358053 .

Mar'a Estela Brisk, Bilingual Education From Compensatory to Quality Schooling (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998) 1, Questia, 23 Feb. 2009  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14165477 .

Natalie Cerda & Christina M. Hernandez, "Bilingual Education,"Retrieved February 23, 2009, from Bilingual Education Web site:  http://www.freewebs.com/cerdahdz/historyofbilingualed.htm

According to the book, studies have shown non-native speaking students or students who have special needs physical or behavioral struggle depression because they are in a different country and away from family. "Psychologist David Pillemer has analyzed memories of school, and suggests that such memories have much to tell us about students' perception of success or failure. When I talk to people about their education, from factory workers to physicians, from middle-school to doctoral students, it is telling how many of them call up resonant and emotional memories of events in school that, they claim, have had a potent effect on so many things: their sense of their intelligence, their social competence, their bearing in public spaces" (p. 244 -- 245). Scholars argue whether this is the implication of the alienation to students who form the mainstream population or just one of the effects of being drenched in a multicultural…

Immigration Education in California

Few issues create long-lasting controversy, the type of controversy that engages nearly every member of society regardless of their economic, ethnic, intellectual, political, religious, or social background. Examples of such issues are abortion, crime, the death penalty, racism, rape, etc. Another example of such an issue is immigration education in California. hile California has traditionally embodied the "melting pot" image that the United States so ardently embraces, the issue of immigration education in California has created (and continues to create) quite a stir.

This paper analyzes and examines the multitude of issues related to immigration education in California. Part II discusses the materials and methods utilized. In Part III, the problem of immigration education in California and the probable causes is outlined. Part IV examines the research methods employed. Lastly, this paper concludes with recommendations and potential solutions.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conceived…

Works Cited

Hayne, Sarah. "Immigration News: California Proposes Higher Education for Immigrants." 6/29/01. Retrieved at http://www.usvisanews.com/memo1345.html. On November 12, 2002.

FactBook 2002: Immigration Status of Students- Proposition 187 of 1994 and Welfare Reform Act of 1996." Retrieved at  http://www.cde.ca.gov/resrc/factbook/immigstatus.htm . On November 12, 2002.

Immigration Education Issues Pathway: Immigration Policies and Laws." Retrieved at http://eric-web.tc.columbia.edu/pathways/immigrant_issues/impol.html. On November 12, 2002.

Immigration News: California Won't Keep Bilingual Education Programs." 12/30/99. Retrieved at http://www.usvisanews.com/memo825.html. On November 12, 2002.

opportunities, including education, employment, and entrepreneurship that immigrants have in America.

America provides opportunities for all races:

America guarantees that one will not be discriminated on the basis on of his race,

National origin, gender, age etc.

All citizens in America have the right to an equal education, which includes a bilingual education.

Teaching immigrants the English language on an academic level allows them to communicate on a level equivalent to other professionals in the work place.

Immigrants who learn the English Language on a communicable level gives him or her the same equal legal rights as natural born Americans, for example-no hidden surprises in legal contracts.

Entrepreneurship:

Foundations help immigrants start up their own businesses in America.

Immigrants, upon receiving citizenship, have the same rights to own businesses in America as Native Americans.

Immigrants of other countries are allowed to contribute their uniqueness to this country when they open…

Bibliography

Frost, Martin, (01/22/1999)

Where-Freedom Seekers Yearn to be Free; Halting Immigrants Deprives America of Fresh Talent that Keeps in on Top

Knight-Ridder News Service

Kelley, S., (9/18/2002)

More importantly, our appreciative and participatory stance with our co-researchers has allowed us to witness and learn about the cutting edge of leadership work in such a way that is and feels qualitatively different from other research traditions we have used in the past, because it is built on valuing. Even though it is challenging at times (Ospina et al. 2002), our inquiry space is enhanced by our collaboration with the social change leaders. (Schall, Ospina, Godsoe and Dodge, nd)

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods are those of:

(1) Phenomenology -- this is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher focuses on gaining understanding of how an individual or individuals experience a phenomenon.

(2) Ethnography -- qualitative research that focuses on the culture of a group and describing that culture.

(3) Case Study Research -- form of qualitative research that provides a detailed account of a case…

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Betts, Dion E. (2008) Professional Learning Communities and Special education: We Are Gathering Student Performance Data, Now What? PA Administrator.

Blaydes, John (2004) Survival skills for the principalship: a treasure chest of time-savers, short-cuts, and strategies to help you keep a balance in your life. Corwin Press, 2004.

Condelli, Larry and Wrigley, Heide Spruck (2004) Real World Research: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research for Adult ESL paper was presented at the National Research and Development Centre (NRDC) Second International Conference for Adult Literacy and Numeracy, Loughborough, England, March 25-27, 2004.

Cotton, K. (1996). School size, school climate, and student performance (School Improvement Research Series, Close-Up #20). Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved September 30, 2006, from  http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/10/c020.html

Immigrant Education

During the last century, the United States has seen a high rate of immigration from other countries, with inevitable effects on our educational system. During the past decade, immigration from Asian nations in particular to the United States has reached an historically unprecedented level. Data indicate that Korea has been one of the top ten sources of immigration during the past two decades, and a large number of these Korean immigrants have settled in California, (Su-Je, et. al., 2002) but our country has many new residents from all Asian countries as well as many others. In the classroom this presents an educational problem as teachers may be faced not only with students who don't understand English yet, but multiple such students each speaking a different language. hile many of these students come from cultures that put great importance on academic achievement.

However, students who don't speak English and…

Works Cited

1) Yeh, 2002. Christine. "Difficulties and coping strategies of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean immigrant students." Adolescence: Spring. 10 pp.

Bhattacharya, Gauri. 2000. "The school adjustment of south Asian immigrant children in the United States." Adolescence: Spring: 7 pp.

Buchanan, Patrick J. The Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrations Imperil Our Country and Civilization. New York: St. Martin's Press. 2002.

Cho, Su-Je, Singer, George H.S., and Brenner, Mary. 2000. "Adaptation and Accommodation to Young Children with Disabilities: A Comparison of Korean and Korean-American Parents." Topics in Early Childhood Special Education: Winter.

By working toward and arriving at a workable and agreeable solution, Tombaugh's principal and teachers together demonstrated the power and effectiveness of collective leadership.

Cushman (March 1997) further points out that in today's changing and increasingly demanding educational environment, with the best, most dedicated faculty often not given much credit for all they accomplish, and with increasing pressure placed on educational leaders and faculty alike due to national standards and emphasis on test score performance nationwide, the traditional school hierarchy of principal as leader and the rest as followers, works far less successfully than in the past. As Cushman states, leadership must instead spring from "reciprocal processes" that help to identify, and work toward, a common purpose. In other words, in today's complex and increasingly demanding educational environment, schools need all the leaders, working together, that they can get. It is also crucial to optimal school success, Cushman adds, that…

References

Cushman, K. (March 1997). Essential leadership in the school change Process. Horace. 13(4). Retrieved October 4, 2005, at  http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/resources/view/ces_res/101.html .

Green, J.P, Forster, G., & Winters, M.A. (July 2003). Apples to apples: An evaluation of charter schools serving general student populations.

Educational working paper No. 1. The Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. Retrieved October 4, 2005, from:  http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/ewp_01.htm .

Turnbull, B. (2001). The longitudinal evaluation of school change and performance in Title 1 schools. Policy Studies Associates. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved October 4, 2005, at http://www.policystudies.com/studies/school/lescp.html.

Lives on the Boundary by Mike ose

The achievements of ose with his students were successful and exceptional because most of his students were in the circumstances he was once in the discredits most of the educational fallacies and stereotypes that are applied on remedial students and literacy. He also shows how one can succeed in life despite of the background as it is seen when he becomes a teacher and later a director at UCLA

The main theme in this book is to show how life can be hard for the remedial students who he argues that they do not fail as a result of intelligence and poor skills but due to limited opportunity and little understanding. He tells this through his own life experience to show how both social and economic forces play a big role in influencing performance and perception of the unprepared students. He does not…

References

Rose Mike, 1990, Lives on the Boundary: A Moving Account of the Struggles and Achievements of America's Educationally Underprepared, Penguin Books publishers.

INGLEBY, E., JOYCE, D., & POWELL, S. (2010).Learning to teach in the lifelong learning sector. New York, NY, Continuum International Pub. Group pp 7-15

FRANCIS, M., & GOULD, J. (2009). Achieving your PTTLS award: a practical guide to successful teaching in the lifelong learning sector. Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE Publications. Pp 5-25

AVIS, J., FISHER, R., & THOMPSON, R. (2010).Teaching in Lifelong Learning: A Guide to Theory and Practice. Milton Keynes, Open University Press. P 21

Introduction
Owing to contemporary trends such as globalization, refugee and migrant influx, increased social and geographical mobility, and global education dissemination, progressively more multilingual and multicultural settings have been emerging worldwide (Trisnawati, 2017). Such settings have led to the growth of bilingualism (and multilingualism) in population groups. Consequently, this research will address the subject of how bilingual persons (those who speak their native tongue, as well as the language, is spoken in the place they have migrated to) maintain their identity within multilingual/ multicultural contexts. Familiarity with their native tongue accords them a sense of pride and internal strength about their heritage.
Problem and its context
The chief topic of discussion in this research will be how multilingual or bilingual persons retain their ethnic/cultural identity within multilingual/multicultural contexts. Evidence to support the research will be collected from several related multilingual/multicultural contexts. But the specific context for the research is multicultural…

References
Bankston III, C. L., & Zhou, M. (1995). Effects of minority-language literacy on the academic achievement of Vietnamese youths in New Orleans. Sociology of education, 1-17.
Danbolt, L. D. (2011). The challenge of bilingualism in a multilingual society: The Bolivian Case. Journal of Intercultural Communication, ISSN, 1404-1634.
Giles, H., Taylor, D. M., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1977). Dimensions of Welsh identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 7(2), 165-174.
Imbens-Bailey, A. L. (1996). Ancestral language acquisition: Implications for aspects of ethnic identity among Armenian American children and adolescents. Journal of language and social psychology, 15(4), 422-443.
Phinney, J. S., Romero, I., Nava, M., & Huang, D. (2001). The role of language, parents, and peers in ethnic identity among adolescents in immigrant families. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(2), 135-153.
Rosenthal, D. A., & Cichello, A. M. (1986). The meeting of two cultures: Ethnic identity and psychosocial adjustment of Italian-Australian adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 21(1-4), 487-501.
Schmidt, D. (2019). How to Maintain Your Culture When Moving to Another Country. The Spruce.
Trisnawati, I. K. (2017). MAINTAINING THE IDENTITY OF BILINGUAL INDIVIDUALS IN MULTICULTURAL/MULTILINGUAL SETTINGS. Englisia: Journal of Language, Education, and Humanities, 5(1), 8-16.

Background Information
Baker High School serves a diverse community, and consists of about 50% Caucasian, 20% African American, 20% Hispanic, and 10% of students from other ethnicities including Asian and Pacific Islander. Over the past five years, Baker has improved its overall performance in terms of measurable outcomes such as test scores and retention rates. The school covers grades 9 through 12. There are about 1100 students enrolled on average every school year, and a total of 95 full-time teachers working at Baker High.
Problem Situation
Last year, the Principal who had served the school for over ten years retired. The Principal was well liked for her performance and democratic leadership style; albeit occasionally criticized for resisting change. The incoming Principal ended up being almost the opposite in terms of disposition, leadership style, and educational philosophy. The new Principal, called Skinner for purposes of maintaining anonymity, introduced a series of…

Klotz 266) the standards of the system have had to rely on standardized accountability curriculum to attempt to make this cooperative concept work. The difficulties are also answered with community emphasis on technology and social growth as well a community involvement in schools and district affairs.

In one of the most poignant addresses to congress, in this case Montana, one of the congressmen demonstrate the fight, in every state for the development of quality schools for Native Americans.

If there is to be a solution to the Indian problem in this country, it will only come about when our educational system provides the knowledge... needed to understand and respect the cultural differences between us and the state helps to preserve and protect their cultural integrity. This is a matter of pride. All of us are proud of our heritage... because we know about our history, our culture and our integrity....Are…

Works Cited

Juneau, Denise, and Mandy Smoker Broaddus. "And Still the Waters Flow: The Legacy of Indian Education in Montana it Took 34 Years, Extraordinary Perseverance, and a Series of Legislative and Legal Efforts before the Advocates of Indian Education for All Would Finally See Its Implementation in Montana's Classrooms. Ms. Juneau and Ms. Broaddus Chronicle the Law's Tortuous History." Phi Delta Kappan 88.3 (2006): 193.

Klotz, Irving M. "Multicultural Perspectives in Science Education: One Prescription for Failure." Phi Delta Kappan 75.3 (1993): 266.

Mitchell, Bruce M., and Robert E. Salsbury. Encyclopedia of Multicultural Education. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

Roscoe, Will. The Zuni Man-Woman. 1st ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991.

They also focus more on institutional support, like the need for appropriate funding for such educational programs, rather than psychological issues attacked to assimilation. Changing demographics in recent years in Canada have forced adult education programs to meet the challenge of doing more with fewer resources, as they fight, for more funding for programs designed to orient immigrants in the language and culture of the area. "As new citizens to Canada, they need educational programs to help them navigate the complex paths that citizenship entails and to upgrade their language, knowledge and skills to fully participate in Canadian society."

Unlike Ferrigno's article on education that accepts community criticism and a critique of society as a whole, Guo and Sork's see "adult education as an agency of social progress" in moving students forward into better economic opportunities. Adult education is "an important forum for building inclusive citizenship" more so than changing…

S. educational system. The impact of such law is very noticeable among teachers, students and even to the school administrators. However, there are a number of issues that have been continuously arising as people try to avail of their rights to education.

State legislatures attempting to comply with state Supreme Court mandates to reform their education finance systems should strive to meet the demands of both adequacy and equity. The experiences of some schools and/or states regarding the influx of enrollees suggest that regardless of the catalyst for reform, education reform can and should include elements of both equity and adequacy.

More so, it should be noted that whether a state is in the initial stages of implementing court-mandated reform, like the Equal Education Opportunities Act, or whether it has been in the process for decades, modern reform should incorporate the lessons of the last thirty years of reform efforts…

References

Buzuvist, Erin E. 2001. "A" for effort: evaluating recent state education reform in response to judicial demands for equity and adequacy. Cornell Law Review. Cornell University

Crofton, Ian. (1992). The Guinness Encyclopedia. Guiness Publication.

Education Quotes. (2006). Retrieved January 17, 2007, at  http://www.wisdomquotes.com/cat_education.html 

Gylfason, Thorvaldur. (2000) Natural Resources, Education, and Economic Development.

The study found that while the students sought out information from a variety of sources, the sources they found most valuable were parents, friends, teachers, and school counselors. Students in upper grades (11th & 12th) were more likely than students in lower grades to seek out information, and upper level students were more likely to find school counselors, college resource materials, campus visits, and college representatives as most helpful, compared with lower grade students (9th & 10th) who reported that parents, relatives, or siblings were most helpful. There are several implications of this study for colleges and universities. First of all, as school counselors were cited as an important resource for information, colleges need to work with counselors to make sure they have up-to-date information. Griffin et al. (2010) explain that "erroneous information can lead to unrealistic expectations that may cause students to select goals and take actions that can…

References:

Griffin, D., Hutchins, B.C., & Meece, J.L. (2011). Where do rural high school students go to find information about their futures?. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89(2), 172-181. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Hahn, A.,, Coonerty, C. & Peaslee, L. (2003) Colleges and universities as economic anchors: Profiles of promising practices. Retrieved from  http://www.compact.org/advancedtoolkit/pdf/HAHN_FINAL_PAPER.pdf 

Hardy, D.E., & Katsinas, S.G. (2007). Classifying community colleges: How rural community colleges fit. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2007(137), 5-17. doi:10.1002/cc.265

Ludlow, B.L., & Duff, M.C. (2009). Evolution of distance education at West Virginia university: Past accomplishments, present activities, and future plans. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 28(3), 9-17. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Cultural Case Study: Maria

This cultural case study examines the language competencies, social and human capital assets of a Spanish immigrant to the U.S. named Maria. She is 16 and lives in a community where the Hispanic population is considerable. Her family is supportive and engaged in her life and she receives substantial assistance from them. She is motivated and does well in her studies. She is able to practice her L1 and her L2 all the time thanks to a school that is good at helping ELLs and a community that shares in her ethnic background where her L1 is still commonly used among the inhabitants. This paper also provides some simple suggestions for what the school could do to continue to help Maria to achieve her objectives.

Introduction

Maria is an ELL who has a strong personal and cultural identity. She is Hispanic -- an immigrant from Spain…

References

Anderson, V. & Garrison, J.M. (2014). Language and Culture Vignette, Week 1. EDUC

526 course content materials, Concordia University, Seward, Nebraska. [PDF]

Pettito, L. A., & Kovelman, I. (2003). The Bilingual Paradox: How signing-speaking

bilingual children help us to resolve bilingual issues and teach us about the brain's mechanisms underlying all language acquisition. Learning Languages, 8(3), 5-18. [PDF]

Enlarging the Pool: How Higher Education Partnerships are Recruiting and Supporting Special Educators from Underrepresented Groups" discusses various strategies that educators can adopt to bolster recruitment of minority special educators. This need is even more vital, considering the fact that an estimated 40% of American public school students are not Caucasian. In comparison, only 12% of teachers are from racial and ethnic minorities.

There is thus a strong need to "enlarge the pool" of qualified minority special educators. Numerous strategies have been culled from the multiple strategies adopted in successful school districts. One strategy suggests the development of a "grow-your-own" program, a strategy which works well in rural and sparsely-populated areas. Recruitment begins early, with paraprofessionals and clerical support staff who are already working in minority school districts. By giving people who are already in the school districts the requisite training, the grow-your-own program can take advantage of the diversity…

The Impact of Using Professional Bilingual Interpreters
Abstract
Elderly Hispanic patients experience numerous challenges when seeking for healthcare services since they are only eloquent in their native language and are classified as Limited English Proficient (LEP) patients. This paper examines patient-provider communication between these patients and healthcare providers. The evaluation is carried out to determine the role and significance of bilingual interpreters in promoting medication adherence among elderly Hispanic patients aged 50-75 years. The project will be implemented in an outpatient clinic and community center that provides care to different kinds of patients including elderly Hispanics. This project demonstrates that bilingual interpreters would help promote medication adherence and compliance with treatment among these patients.
Keywords: elderly Hispanics, patients, medication adherence, bilingual interpreters, treatment, patient-provider communication, healthcare providers.
Statement of the Problem
Hispanic population is one of the fastest growing groups of people in the United States, particularly among America’s elderly…

Journal of Gottleib, Katz & Ernst-Slavit (2009) and Colorin Colorado Blog.

The Colorin Colorado Blog is unique in that it provides a bilingual web resource for teachers of all age groups, and offers basic information about ELLs and ELL teaching strategies, as well as school and family support areas. I especially appreciated the way that the website offers assistance for parents, and I have since been asking colleagues to translate the material into other languages for use in my classrooms because many of the ELLs in my classroom come from families that do not use either English or Spanish at home.

In Chapter 5, Gottleib, Katz & Ernst-Slavit (2009) discuss the ways that standard-based learning strategies and collaborative learning strategies can be especially useful for ELLs. The authors also discuss the ways the TESOL English language proficiency standards can be used to foster collaborations and strategic partnerships.

In Chapter 6,…

References

YouTube: The Role of ESL Teachers in Collaboration

ColorinColorado, 2013.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nL2SMmhBxlY 

YoutTube: ESOL Collaborative Team Teaching

Burell C, 2005.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DOJSD5MGy4I

Practice

Bi-Lingual

Theory and practice of multicultural and bilingual education

The demands of the competitive marketplace have caused a fundamental shift in the needs of ESL learners and will change the structure of ESL education. During the 1980s and 19980s, the predominant emphasis in ESL instruction was on social graces and basic fluency "Those objectives are now outdated and inadequate to meet the pressing needs of today's children. Increasingly complex, high-tech demands from industry and commerce mandate that every graduate, including those for whom English is a second language, acquire knowledge and skills to compete for jobs" (Beckett & Haley 2000). The goal is for ESL students to graduate not merely with a grasp of English, but with knowledge of subject areas commensurate with their non-ESL peers. Demands for strong ESL student performance are growing amongst parents as well as school administrators, who wish to give a more equitable education…

References

Beckett, E.C., & Haley, P.K. (2000). Using standards to integrate academic language into ESL

fluency. The Clearing House, 74(2), 102-104.

 http://search.proquest.com/docview/196835515?accountid=10901 

Son, J. (2008). Using web-based language learning activities in the ESL classroom. International Journal of Pedagogies & Learning, 4(4), 34-43.

It also confirms idea that general standardized tests of academic performance are a good means of assessing student's English language ability.

The dependent variable of the study was students' performance on language assessment tests geared towards ELL students, and the independent variable was that of performance on general academic assessment test. However, there was an underlying assumption that the first component of the assessment, namely that of the measured language proficiency was 'correct.' Other forms of proficiency, such as general life skills, classroom performance, and teacher perception of student improvement were not tabulated nor assessed through quantitative or qualitative methodology.

There are other problems with the study. First of all, the definition of poverty by assessing student participation in school lunch programs is problematic, given this assumes such programs measure poverty in absolute terms, while the accuracy of their measurements of student poverty has been called into question in recent…

Works Cited

Mahon, Elizabeth a. (2006, Summer). "High-stakes testing and English Language

Learners: Questions of validity." Bilingual Research Journal. 30.2: 479-496. Retrieved 15 Apr 2008 at http://brj.asu.edu/vol30_no2/art11.pdf

It cannot be denied that NCLB largely tests students on standardized measures that value verbal fluency above all else (interestingly, competency in a foreign language is not required in NCLB) bilingual students are shown in a poor light, and guidance towards specific prescriptive techniques to suit the individual student's cultural needs, level of fluency, and family situation is not provided by NCLB. NCLB encourages teaching students how to pass a test rather than fosters the type of skills they need to truly 'own' their learning at worst, or at best, by excludes students from school performance results, which may result in a lack of funding for ESL programs, as opposed to programs that really 'count' towards the magic numbers required to meet district standards.

The anthology questions the fundamental assumption that cultural assimilation is a necessary marker of progress in the American school system. The one potential advantage, albeit a…

S. Department of Education presented a five-year grant to University esearch Co's - UC Center for Human Services to work in collaboration with McDaniel College. The project is intended to act as a source to McDaniel to expand and execute a high quality bilingual education/ESL teacher-training program. By this project, CHS/McDaniel will offer various professional development openings to public school teachers and administrators, including workshops, graduate courses in bilingual education, field experiences, and a rigorous summer training institute. (Bilingual Education: Training for All Teachers)

The language immersion programs that are now provided in the United States came from Canada. They wanted their English-speaking population to learn French. Canadians realized English-speaking students were not getting adequate French to get minimum grades in school and to get jobs in French speaking areas of Canada. In 1975, Canada's first French immersion program began and by 1980 this program was launched in the United…

References

Bilingual Education: Training for All Teachers" Retrieved at  http://www.urc-chs.com/services/education/bilingualeducation.html . Accessed on 20 March 2005

Canales, JoAnn; Ruiz-Escalante; Jose Agustin. "A Pedagogical Framework for Bilingual Education Teacher Preparation Programs" Proceedings of the Third National Research Symposium on Limited English Proficient Student Issues: Focus on Middle and High School Issues. Retrieved at http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/symposia/third/canales.htm. Accessed on 20 March 2005

Cargas, Rachel; Ryan, Tricia. (May 7, 2002) "Bilingual Education" Rachel Cargas's Online Research Portfolio. Retrieved at http://tiger.towson.edu/users/rcarga1/researchpaper.htm#BilingualeducationoriginatinginCanadaAccessed on 20 March 2005

Krashen, Stephen. (August 22, 2000) "Bilingual Education Wasn't a Cure" New York Times. Retrieved at http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/klet4.htm. Accessed on 20 March 2005

The components can be ranked by level of importance or relevance to the subject.

Sequential Graphic Organizers: Sequential organizers allow the educator to assess the ability of the student to logically link ideas and concepts together. Cause/effect and problem/solution are common types of sequential organizers.

Cyclical Graphic Organizers: According to Struble, cyclical graphic organizers help educators evaluate the ability of students to comprehend natural cycles.

In reviewing the application of graphic organizers to the science classroom, Struble (2007) further reports that these tools can provide a clear understanding of student learning at any given point in time. In addition, these tools can be used to assess student learning over the course of a lesson or unit. Because graphic organizers allow individual assessment of student learning, Struble also argues that these tools can be effective for "assessing student with limited English skills or with learning disabilities" (p. 71). Because these tools…

References

Craig, D.V. (2007). Alternative, dynamic assessment for second language learners. ERIC Database, (ED453691), 1-17.

Barlow, L., & Coombe, C. (2000). Alternative assessment Acquisition in the United Arab Emirates. ERIC Database, (ED448599), 1-8.

Bybee, R.W., & Van Scotter, P. (2007). Reinventing the science curriculum. Educational Leadership, 64(4), 43-47.

Fitch, G.K. (2007). A rubric for assessing a student's ability to use the light microscope. American Biology Teacher, 69(4), 211-214.

enlightening the Far West community in terms of the education level having special focus on the students with Limited English Proficiency. The executive summary will highlight the fact that the population in the region is 70% immigrants and what challenges this portends for the education system. Here also the need for the project as an alternative certification, career ladder, special support for teachers, as a means to improving faculty skills and a preparation source for bilingual counselors will be highlighted. This section will also include the expected cash figures that will enable the project to be effectively implemented from the development of the curriculum to the support for tuition fees and buying of books.

Statement of need

This is the second part where the potential sponsors need to see that the project is in real existence, in the hands of capable people and that the funding would lead to benefits…

Reference

Foundation Center, (2012). Proposal Writing Short Course. Retrieved October 22, 2012 from  http://foundationcenter.org/getstarted/tutorials/shortcourse/methods.html

V. Government System RARPA

The government introduced the RARPA Program which is abbreviated for the:: "Recording and Recognition of Progress and Achievement Summary of the Evaluation Report" in relation to the Pilot Projects April 2003 to March 2004 Learning and Skills Development Agency National Institute of Adult Continuing Education 2004 August. Since 2002 the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) has focused its efforts on establishing an appropriate method of recognizing and recording the progress and achievement of learners that is non-accredited in nature. Development of a model called the 'Staged Process." The RARPA consists of the application "of an explicit and common staged process to the recognition and recording of progress and achievement, together with the validation of this process through a range of judgments about its consistent and effective application." The background of the project is stated to be that LSDA and NIACE were involved in preparation of work…

Works Cited:

McCallum, Myra K. (1999) "Strategies and Activities to Stimulate Adequate ESOL Instruction in Content Area Courses and Increase Honest Effort and Motivation Among ESOL Students Dekalb County School System, Decatur, GA 1999 November U.S. Department of Education: #FL026093.

Your Guide 2 Skills For Life Policy and Strategy (2005) Skills and Education Network March Online available at: http://senet.lsc.gov.uk/guide2/skill sforlife/G2skillsforlifeG028.pdf

English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) Case Studies of Provision, Learner's Needs and Resources, National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy Online at www.nrcd.org.uk ISBN 0 95456492 Kings College London, University of Leeds, Institute of Education, University of London and Lancaster University.

Fogel, H. & Ehri, L.C. (2000). Teaching elementary students who speak Black English Vernacular to write in Standard English: effects of dialect transformation practice. Contemporary Educational Psychology, vol. 25.

Amato & Baca (1989) note that throughout history bilingual education has shifted multiple times, from "nonbiased native-language assessments" to specific services directly related to a student's special needs and bilingual ability (168). Many consider the field of bilingual special education one that is emerging and growing. Baca & Cervantes (1989) note a need for a bilingual special education "interface" exists that incorporates training for special education students and teachers (168). Amato & Baca (1989) observe that certain teacher competencies are clearly necessary for bilingual special education teachers, competencies that must be more clearly defined. Neuman & oskos (1997) and other researchers including Gonzalez-Bueno (2003) suggest promoting literacy among bilingual special education students should be a primary concern for educators. They suggest use of a bilingual alphabet will help facilitate this process.

Jackson-Maldonado (1999) suggests that multiple factors may impact bilingual special education student's ability to excel including student's socio-economic status…

References

Amato, C. & Baca, L. 1989. Bilingual Special Education: Training Issues. Exceptional Children, 56.2, 168.

Correa, V.I., Figueroa, R.A. & Fradd, S.H. 1989. Bilingual special education and this special issue. Exceptional Children, 56.2, 174+

Gonzalez-Bueno. 2003. Literacy activities for Spanish-English bilingual children. The Reading Teacher, 57(2); 180

Jackson-Maldonado. 1999. Early language assessment for Spanish-speaking children.

Using Additive Bilingualism to Address Subtractive Educational Challenge among Hispanic-American LearnersIntroductionLatin Americans largest color population will account for about half of student growth over the next decade. Latin Americans are also the least educated of any ethnic group (Nuez, amalho & Cuero, 2010). Promoting the success of Latino Americans and other colored students is a major concern of educational systems that serve more diverse student organizations and become increasingly accountable to external institutions. Conversely, the population of teachers does not reflect this demography, as the majority of teachers/lecturers in American learning institutions are white. This divergence means that most teachers are unaware of their students daily experiences such as cultural background, dialect, family, home, and community. Because teachers tend to draw educational examples from their own experiences, these connections are not made for students.Moreover, Hispanics in the United States have historically suffered from ridicule and abuse from mainstream cultures due…

ReferencesAlfaro, C., & Bartolom, L. (2017). Preparing ideologically clear bilingual teachers: Honoring working-class non-standard language use in the bilingual education classroom.Issues in Teacher Education,26(2), 11-34.Enstice, E. M. (2017). Latino Parent Perspectives: How to Promote and Implement Additive Bilingualism.Journal for Leadership and Instruction,16(1), 33-36.Garate, M. (2012). ASL/English bilingual education: Models, methodologies and strategies.Vis. Lang. Vis. Learn. Res. Brief,2(8), 1-8.Gonzlez, J. F. E. (2018). Analyzing Morans dimensions of culture in an English conversational course at UCR.Revista de Lenguas Modernas, (28).Moran, P. R. (2001).Teaching culture: Perspectives in practice. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Nuez, A. M., Ramalho, E. M., & Cuero, K. K. (2010). Pedagogy for equity: Teaching in a Hispanic-serving institution.Innovative Higher Education,35(3), 177-190.Ochoa, A. M., & Cadiero-Kaplan, K. (2004). Towards promoting biliteracy and academic achievement: Educational programs for high school Latino English language learners.The High School Journal,87(3), 27-43.Padrn, Y.N., Waxman, H.C. & Rivera, H.H. (2002). Educating Hispanic students: Effective instructional practices. Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, University of California.Schmitt, E. C. (1985). The 3 teaching methods in bilingual classes. The New York Times.Seelye, N. (1984). Teaching Culture Strategies for Intercultural Communication. Lincolnwood: National Textbook Company.Sheets, R. H. (2005).Diversity Pedagogy: Examining the role of culture in the teaching-learning process. Pearson College Division.Spolsky, B. (1998).Sociolinguistics(Vol. 1). Oxford university press.Valenzuela, A. (1999).Subtractive schooling: US-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Mathematics Instruction in English on ELL Second Grade Students

J. Elizabeth Estevez

Educ2205I-Content Research Seminar

Mathematics is a powerful tool for interpreting the world. Research has shown that for children to learn how to use mathematics to organize, understand, compare, and interpret their experiences, mathematics must be connected to their lives. Such connections help students to make sense of mathematics and view it as relevant. There has, however, been controversy with regard to children from non-English backgrounds and the best ways to get them to make those connections. Questions are raised regarding how to instruct these children who are referred to as English language learners (ELL's). Should they initially be taught in their native language with gradual exposure to English in language classes, or should they be immersed in English as early as possible. Based upon ideas presented in research studies and my own ideas as a former bilingual teacher,…

Teaching ESL Students

At least 3.5 million children every year are identified as possessing limited English proficiency and require additional support before they are mainstreamed into the regular classroom environment (Miller & Endo 2004: 786). Approaches to ESL instruction run the gamut from total immersion to fostering a largely bilingual approach to education for this group of students. The two typical program approaches are that of a transitional bilingual education (TBE) versus a structured (sheltered) English immersion (SEI) program. In TBE, students are instructed in their native language and slowly transitioned to English, and are mainstreamed within 2-3 years to an English-only environment. In the SEI model, all instruction is provided in English immediately, with no accommodations (Tong 2009). A "major challenge that schools face under the pressure of the landmark No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 is to prepare ELLs with native-like English proficiency through various instructional models…

References

Miller, P. & Endo, H. (2004). Understanding and meeting the needs of ESL learners. Phi Delta

Kappan, 786-791,

http://faculty.weber.edu/mtungmala/Hybrid4270/Articles/MeetNeeds.pdf

Owens, A. (2010). In the Aftermath of question 2: Students with Limited English Proficiency in Massachusetts. Massachusetts Office for Refugees and Immigrants: Special report.

Why do Most ESL students struggle with reading and literacy and what can be done to improve this? Strategies teachers can use?

It is indeed the case that many ESL students have difficulty with reading and literacy but there are things that can be done to deal with this issue. According to an article found in the Journal of College eading and Learning, it common knowledge that the second language reading process, like the first language process, must be recognized as a "top-down/bottom-up" relationship amid the graphic display located with in the text, several echelons of linguistic knowledge and processes, and several cognitive activities (Weber; Upton). In addition

-up processing -- the recognition of letters and words, the accurate representation of temporal and order information, and the efficient coding of verbal information in short-term memory -- ensures that readers will be sensitive to information that is novel or that does…

References

Aebersold, J.A. & Field, M.L. (1997). From reader to reading teacher: Issues and strategies for second language classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Criteria for Evaluating Cultural Content of Reading Material"

Cummins. The acquisition of English as a Second Language.

Curriculum Repository Glossary. http://www.msdnaacr.net/curriculum/glossary.aspx