Bilingual Education
Predicting the effect of bilingual education on student outcomes with the work done by Huddy and Sears, "Opposition to Bilingual Education: Prejudice or the Defense of ealistic Interests?" is problematical. The authors investigated the bases for parental prejudice against bilingual education; they did not investigate in any detail what the educational outcomes might be for the children involved. They made only incidental reference to the possibility that Latino, African-American or other minority students -- or even Anglos -- might experience diminished educational outcomes in the presence, or for that matter absence, of bilingual education. In fact, they were not investigating outcomes per se; they were investigating the source of prejudice.

Huddy and Sears proposed that current prejudice against bilingual education is of two kinds. One kind is the realistic interest variety. Those who practice this form of prejudice believe that spending money on bilingual education to serve Latinos does a….

Bilingual Education
The first federal Bilingual Education Act (BEA) was signed into law in 1968. This study sought to determine what effects the BEA had on local and state school districts in California, some who had previously initiated programs to address the Limited English Speaking (LES) students who were becoming an integrated part of the educational system in California. The study is important to the proposed paper in that it shows how good intentions on the part of the Federal government don't always translate into good results. The study found that there were a number of innovative and independent programs that were adversely affected by the increased oversight and enforcement that the federal program brought with it.

Petrzela, N.M. (2010) Before the Federal Bilingual Education Act: Legislation and lived experience in California, Peabody Journal of Education, ol. 85,

Bilingual education is not just a byword in the United States it is also practiced….

Bilingual Education in Los Angeles
According to the Los Angeles Times articles, "Hundreds Wait for Bilingual Education," by Louis Sahagun and Nick Anderson (October 23, 1998), there are hundreds of students awaiting arrangements for bilingual classes; these students' parents have petitioned the Los Angeles (LA) school system to provide the resources and facilities their children need to learn the English language outside of total immersion classrooms. This article examines the impact of Proposition 227 which provides an alternative to the total immersion approach by offering classes bilingual classes taught in English with support in their native language. The problem cited in this article concerns the paucity of requests for exemption for in any given school, and at least 20 are required in order to form such bilingual classes in a single school.

eview of "Hundreds Wait for Bilingual Education" by Louis Sahagun and Nick Anderson (October 23, 1998)

Although the Los Angeles Unified….

Bilingual Education
America is a land of immigrants and has, therefore, always required bilingual education programs in some form or the other. In fact, bilingual education programs have existed in America since the late eighteenth century, when European immigrant children received educational instruction in their native languages. Recently, however, the issue of bilingual education appears to have grown somewhat contentious. This is evident by the initiatives taken by the States of California, Arizona, and Massachusetts to replace bilingual education with English immersion programs, and the likelihood of other States soon addressing the issue (Lipka, 2002). The move to replace bilingual education with English immersion programs is perhaps understandable in the light of mixed research findings on the efficacy of bilingual education (Rothstein, 1998). However, as this paper will demonstrate, there is a far stronger case to retain and persist with the system of bilingual education for pedagogical practice has now proved….

The factors affecting cost are numerous and not always easily identifiable; in addition to the purchasing of bilingual textbooks and other instructional supplies, there is often a perception that bilingual instruction leads to a greatly increased workload and number of class hours, and therefore a greater overall strain on the often-tight budgets of public education institutions and districts (Mora 2006). It is primarily the transitional costs, however, that many communities view as a barrier to implementing bilingual education; the reallocation of funds for such a purpose is highly unpopular in areas where students are not receiving basic educational needs already (Hu 2008; Mora 2006; NABE 2009).
The study conducted of Guatemalan bilingual education programs speaks to this issue to some degree, though its ramifications in that country are quite different tan what is seen in the United States. Patrinos and Velez (2009) found that educational costs in Guatemala were actually….

In terms of efficacy, Krashen addresses the position that bilingual education is not as effective as suggested by its proponents.
The evidence presented by this position is however not sufficiently convincing to make a substantial case for immersion programs as being superior to bilingual curricula.

Krashen admits that there are still a number of problems associated with bilingual education that need to be addressed. The largest of these is the accessibility of books in either language to children taking part in bilingual programs. Books are essential in the learning process. In bilingual programs, particularly, it is not only a source of subject knowledge, but also of comprehensible input that is a valuable basis for transference as well as first-language development. The problem is that these learners have little access to books, either at home or at school.

James Crawford (1998) also addresses the bilingual education issue from both sides. According to the….

While students in two-way immersion programs and other bilingual education programs may have the occasion to feel bored when they are not be instructed in their language, teachers can create an environment in which they are stimulated. The National Association for Bilingual Education (2004) notes that the involvement of parents, materials provided by the school, and the support that the program gets are all important factors in the success of bilingual classrooms. In addition, these factors greatly affect student engagement, as it is difficult to engage students without the resources to run an effective class.
3. Faculty have many concerns going into the bilingual classroom. The National Association for Bilingual Education (2004) notes that teachers in a bilingual classroom do not have an easy job. In fact, the association implies that achieving a functioning bilingual classroom may be difficult for teachers. egardless, studies in 1991 through 2002 have shown that….

Perhaps, here, the most telling words seem to be "the more intelligent class," "the better class," and "those of their countrymen who come here with good intentions." Indeed, one has to wonder which groups of immigrants would not wish to be considered as representatives of these words. Certainly, if an avocation against bilingual education will allow them full membership into a class of people who are "intelligent," of "better class," and "with good intentions," it would be tempting to say the least.

The simple truth is, a majority of those who oppose bilingual education are famously right-wing and typically Republican. In fact, under virtually every Republican Administration, issues of bilingual education have consistently been maligned (Ostrom, 1998). Consider, for example the remarks of 1996 Republican Presidential nominee Bob Dole, who asserted that teaching English is meant "to speed the melting of our melting pot," and that "...e must stop the practice….

Ianco-orrell (1972), for example, found that children who are exposed to a bilingual environment from an early age are more skilled at learning new words and their meanings in their first language.
Of course, there are other ways to help children increase their vocabulary in their first language. However, those other methods do not also bestow the many other benefits of bilingualism. And while there are additional costs to bilingual classrooms, proficiency in a second language helps students gain admission to universities as well as to be more competitive in the job market.

Students who become bilingual early on in school will bring those skills to the workplace and improve workplace productivity. Speaking multiple languages offers a competitive edge in the job market and provides a cultural bridge for successful workplace relations. Because of this, demand for bilingual speakers in the workplace is increasing and bilingual communication skills increase economic competitiveness….

Bilingual Education Methods: Pros and Cons
Once upon a time, perhaps, the art of teaching was relatively strait-forward. Each teacher used their own style, or that which had been handed down to them by those they learned from. hile certainly a certain degree of theory has always been involved in teaching (after all, the so-called Socratic method of teaching was debated centuries before the birth of Christ, and is still cropping up as a controversial pedagogy), it was not until very recently that a great deal of academic attention was turned not just to the subject matter in schools, but to the way in which they were taught. Even so, the methodology of teaching second languages, as a separate study from general pedagogy, is even more recent. "The designer methods emerged in the 1970's, a period of great enlightenment as many would describe." (Brown, 1994) According to Jack Richards (2001), "The….

When that one opportunity is taken away for the student to practice the language they are learning then their ability to learn the language is lowered. Additionally, the longer the student has to wait to learn the second language, the less likely they will develop any real proficiency in it.
The main argument to keep Bilingual Education in the schools is to promote a solid sense of culture in a growing minority population. Since there is no official language in the United States, forcing any population to speak one language or the other seems unjust, especially considering how this country was founded and built by immigration. Trends are already being developed where states with a large Spanish speaking population have signs and other literature in both English and Spanish to cater to those who only speak one language or the other. This idea supports what many feel is a fundamental….

Cultural Impact:

This prioritization of education may perhaps best be validated by the cultural impact levied by the Chinese immigrant an descendent populations of the United States. The Chinese cultural impact today is felt in the population's extremely high level of visibility in the worlds of small business ownership and corporate leadership. As the text by Golden Venture (2009) reports, "Chinese immigrants and Chinese-Americans have contributed much to the U.S. economy. In 2002, there were over 286,000 Chinese-owned firms in the U.S., employing more than 649,100 workers, and generating more than $105 billion in revenue. The number of Chinese-owned businesses, mostly in professional, scientific and food-related services, grew 13.2% between 1997 and 2002, and are steadily rising." (Golden Venture, p. 1)

And in the era of globalization, there is an increasing awareness in the United States of the role that Chinese-based multinational firms are having on the business culture and socioeconomic hierarchy….

Flexible grouping practices were important to the success of the program: students had access to Spanish-only, English-only, or bilingual instruction throughout the school day depending on their individual linguistic and academic needs" (de Jong, 2006:3).
This ensured grade-level content learning in most academic subjects, but still allowed for ESL instruction, and social studies content that reinforced their home cultures. Also, bilingual teachers were paired with grade-level standard curriculum teachers to discuss the individual student's different rates of progression and to create an effective, evolving curriculum that supported both ESL and traditional academic instruction. It also gave students support from students experiencing similar struggles as themselves with learning English in a supportive environment combined with exposure to fluent native English speakers later in the day. Non-native speaking children were also paired with same-age learners in class who could give them aid when needed (de Jong, 2006:4).

This acknowledges the possibility of integrative….

bilingual educated students are more likely to continue education past high school, increase their chances of professional careers, have competitive academic achievement scores, improved social skills and a stronger interest in school education programs. The government interest, certification procedures and selection process of hiring qualified teachers is critical. In this report the consequences of limited English proficiency on academic achievement, the positive effects of bilingual education, and the possible solutions and implication of programs will be discussed.
Limited English Proficiency students have received overall lower grades and below average test scores on Math and eading assessments as a result of the language barrier" (Borden 2001). Achievement test scores revealed that minority students tested way below that of Caucasian students. Children of welfare recipients had lower test scores as well.

The comparison of the standardized test scores between Black and Hispanic students are evidence that Limited English Proficiency is a significant factor….

Linguistics
Bilingual Education, Oil, and the Navajo Nation:

New challenges and opportunities in Arizona

The question before the researchers was to find the best means of providing the State of Arizona with the rights to pursue geological surveys of land in the Four Corners region of Arizona. This report is designed to provide Governor Brewer with the best possible information regarding the Navajo people, their language, the issues both positive and negative that may be present in this negotiation, and how the law of the state will be affected by this issue. The introduction covers the tribe and the language proposal and then two separate proposals ranked in order of viability (first is most viable and so on) are provided with the pros and cons of each.

Background

The Navajo Nation

United States law has decreed that American Indian tribes have governance over their own land and that the tribal government can negotiate with state governments….