Cervical Cancer Case Study and Care Plan
Cervical Cancer

The following represents an outline for a plan of care, including information intended to educate the patient about what she can expect given her recent diagnosis of cervical cancer at the age of 45. The good news is that a cervical cancer diagnosis is no longer a death sentence.

Cervical cancer in women is common and afflicts close to 530,000 women worldwide each year (Colombo et al., 2012). Importantly, human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are believed to be the most important causative agent and this virus is detected in 99% of all cervical tumors. Accordingly, the expected protection rate conferred by the HPV vaccine is around 70%.

Of the three categories of cervical cancer recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO), squamous cell carcinoma is by far the most common, representing 70-80% of all cervical cancers (Colombo et al., 2013). Other types of cervical cancer include…...

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References

Colombo, N., Carinelli, S., Colombo, A., Marini, C., Rollo, D., and Sessa, C. (2012). Cervical cancer: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Annals of Oncology, 23(suppl. 7), vi27-vi32.

Davey, Diane D. (2003). Cervical cytology classification and the Bethesda System. Cancer Journal, 9(5), 327-335.

NCI (National Cancer Institute). (2013). Cervical cancer treatment (PDQ). Cancer.gov. Retrieved 9 Nov. 2013 from  http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/cervical/Patient/page1/AllPages/Print .

Querleu, Denis and Morrow, C. Paul. (2008). Classification of radical hysterectomy. Lancet Oncology, 9, 297-303.

The ACS seems to contain a relatively balanced and unbiased approach, not categorically endorsing any treatment, for every patient, with every type of cancer. Its list of references, provided by a link on the site, contains numerous outside scholarly journals, as well as individuals associated with the ACS. It also provides helpful guidelines for talking to a patient's doctor about therapies to support conventional treatments, underlining the fact that the Internet cannot be a sole source of a patient's information, and every patient's state of health is different. The site is one of the first that arises upon a Google search for cervical cancer. For cancer patients who wish to have more information, it provides links to reliable websites and brochures, one of which is in Spanish.
An Invalid Site: Dr. Day's nutritional supplement, metabolic diet, and prayer-based therapy

Of course, it would be easy to find an outrageously inaccurate site…...

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Works Cited

Cervical Cancer: Complementary and Alternative Therapies" (2007). Cervical Cancer: a Detailed Guide. The American Cancer Society. Retrieved on 15 Aug 2007 at  http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_4x_Complementary_and_Alternative_Methods_8.asp?rnav=cri 

Day, Lorraine. (2007). "Dr. Lorraine Day's Personal, Official Website -- Her Amazing

Recovery from Cancer." Retrieved on 15 Aug 2007 at  http://www.drday.com/ 

The Greek Cancer Cure." 2007). The American Cancer Society. Retrieved on 15 Aug 2007 at  http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3X_Greek_Cancer_Cure.asp?sitearea=ETO

Cervical Cancer
What it is

Cervical cancer is cancer of the cervix. Cancer begins when a body's cells start growing and multiplying out of control. Any cells within a body can become cancerous with potential to spread to other parts of the body. Originating in the lining of the cervix or the womb, another name for this area is the uterine cervix. It connects the uterus to the vagina. Most occurrences of pathology start out in what is called the 'transformation zone' that have two cell types, glandular and squamous cells. These cells first develop precancerous changes that then manifest into dysplasia and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). It takes years for these changes to lead to cancer, however some cases have shown these changes taking place in as little as less than twelve months. There are several types of cervical cancer. The most common is squamous cell carcinomas followed by adenocarcinomas. The…...

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References

Ranjbar, R. (2015). Cervical Cancer and Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) -- Viral Cervical Cancer. MOJ Cell Science & Report, 2(3).  http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/mojcsr.2015.02.00026 

Sultana, F., English, D., Simpson, J., Canfell, K., Gertig, D., & Saville, M. (2014). High-grade cervical abnormalities and cervical cancer in women following a negative Pap smear with and without an endocervical component: A cohort study with 10 years of follow-up. International Journal Of Cancer, 135(5), 1213-1219.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.28756

If the cancer is confined to this area, that may be the only treatment required. However, if the cancer has spread, there may be additional surgery necessary to remove the organs where it has spread. There may also be chemotherapy or radiation treatments necessary if the cancer has spread. With stage I or II cancers, the overall prognosis for survival is very good. The prognosis of stage III or IV cancer is not as good, but many women do survive even this extreme stage of cancer.
Is there any way to prevent cervical cancer?

First, if you have one or more of the risk factors, such as smoking, you should stop. Next, many researchers believe that diet and exercise can help reduce the chances of getting cervical cancer. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables can reduce the risk, and a diet that includes large amounts of vitamins a, C, and…...

Cervical Cancer Vaccine
Cervical cancer will usually transpire when abnormal cell found within cervix grow out of control. However, when cervical is identified in its early stages it can be successfully treated. Through the help of Pap test this cervical cancer can be identified. Majority of cervical cancer tend to be caused by virus known as human papillomavirus (HPV). An individual can easily get HPV when they have sexual contact with an individual who already have it. Different types of HPV virus exists and all these types never cause cervical cancer. While some of them cause genital warts, others may not even cause any symptom.

Many states have mandated vaccine for cervical cancer in girls and we all agree that this shot that is to protect against cancer sound like a brilliant idea. However, it is of importance for us to think carefully before putting this vaccine mandatory for our young…...

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Reference

Cynthia Dailard, (2006) "Achieving Universal Vaccination Against Cervical Cancer in the United States: The Need and the Means," Guttmacher Policy Review.

Gail Javitt, Deena Berkowitz & Lawrence O. Gostin (2008) Assessing Mandatory HPV Vaccination: Who Should Call the Shorts?" Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics.

Mayo Clinic staff (2013) "Cervical cancer"  http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cervical-cancer/DS00167 

Yesha Callahan (2012) Should The HPV Vaccine Be Mandatory? http://www.clutchmagonline.com/2012/09/should-the-hpv-vaccine-be-mandatory/

Women's Health Promotion: Cervical Cancer
Cervical cancer is a serious women's health issue. While many women go to their doctor yearly for testing in order to detect cancer and other problems early, many other women ignore this important examination (Gadducci, et al., 2011; Harper, 2004). Additionally, women who have symptoms of cervical cancer often avoid seeing their doctor. They may not have health insurance, they may be frightened, or they may think that something less serious is the cause of their symptoms (Peto, 2004). Because of that, they put off being tested for cancer through a pap smear. If any of these women do develop cervical cancer, their treatment will be more difficult because their disease will have advanced further since it was not caught early. That is something worth considering for any woman who is not sure if she wants to get an exam or has been avoiding an examination…...

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References

Gadducci, A., Barsotti, C., Cosio, S., Domenici, L., & Riccardo Genazzani, A. (2011). Smoking habit, immune suppression, oral contraceptive use, and hormone replacement therapy use and cervical carcinogenesis: a review of the literature. Gynecological endocrinology: the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology, 27(8): 597 -- 604.

Harper, D.M., Franco, E.L., Wheeler, C., Ferris, D.G., Jenkins, D., Schuind, A., Zahaf, T., Innis, B., Naud, P., De Carvalho, N.S., Roteli-Martins, C.M., Teixeira, J., Blatter, M.M., Korn, A.P., Quint, W., & Dubin, G. (2004). Efficacy of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine in prevention of infection with human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in young women: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 364(9447): 1757 -- 65.

Luhn, P., Walker, J., Schiffman, M., Zuna, R.E., Dunn, S.T., Gold, M.A., Smith, K., Matthews, C., Allen, R.A., Zhang, R., Wang, S., & Wentzensen, N. (2013). The role of co-factors in the progression from human papillomavirus infection to cervical cancer. Gynecologic Oncology, 128(2): 265 -- 270.

Peto, J., Gilham, C., Fletcher, O., & Matthews, F.E. (2004). The cervical cancer epidemic that screening has prevented in the UK. Lancet, 364(9430): 249 -- 56.

This includes infection caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV), a high-risk virus that could lead to genital warts and worse, cervical cancer (Bristow 2001).
Since both types of cancers have excellent recovery prospects in their early stages, it is important for women to seek medical help as soon as these symptoms are observed. In cases where endometrial cancer is suspected, a physician would take a biopsy of the patient's uterus for further evaluation. Together with blood tests and bone scans, the biopsy would help a physician determine the stage of cervical cancer and select the best treatment option (Burke 2003).

The appropriate treatment for endometrial and cervical cancers is based on the stage of the disease. In their advanced stages, a radical hysterectomy may be performed. In addition to the uterus, nearby organs such as both ovaries, the fallopian tubes and pelvic lymph nodes can be performed. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy…...

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Works Cited

Bristow, RE. 2003. Cervical cancer. JR Scott et al., eds., Danforth's Obstetrics and Gynecology, 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

Burke, TW et al. 2001. "Cancers of the uterine body." T. DeVita Jr. et al., eds., Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

Gorner, P. 2006. "Common substance is found to inhibit HPV." Baltimore Sun. July 21: B4.

SDG CEVICAL CANCE 7Empowering Societies to be Free of Cervical Cancer Project by the Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening Program (BCCSP)Section 1: IntroductionThe Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening Program (BCCSP) is an initiative of the Doctors Community Hospital in Prince George County, Maryland. The program began as a center offering free breast cancer education and screening to low-income women (age 40 or older) residing in Prince George County. However, with the rising cases of cervical cancer across the state, the BCCSP decided to expand its scope to cover cervical cancer and also move beyond screening and education to offer subsidized treatment and support to patients. The BCCSP is funded by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. The program proposes to implement a project dubbed Empowering Societies to be Free of Cervical Cancer between January 2024 and December 2025. The programs clinical team comprises of seven directors of medicine…...

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References National Cancer Institute (2022). Cancer stat facts: Cervical cancer. National Cancer Institute.   A. F., & Oshifogun, B. (2022). Perspectives of African-American women about barriers to breast cancer prevention and screening practices: a qualitative study. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 26(7), 22-28. Shah, J. S., Jooya, N. D., Woodard, T. L., Ramirez, P. T., Fleming, N. D., & Frumovitz, M. (2019). Reproductive counseling and pregnancy outcomes after radical trachelectomy for early stage cervical cancer. Journal of Gynecologic Oncology, 30(3), 1-10. United Nations (2023). Sustainable development goals: Goal 3 – Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. United Nations.  https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/ World Health Organization, WHO (2022). Cervical cancer. World Health Organization.  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cervical-cancer  https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/cervix.html Obinkule,

Cervical Biopsy
According to the St. John Providence Health System (2012), a cervical biopsy is "a procedure performed to remove tissue from the cervix to test for abnormal or precancerous conditions, or cervical cancer." Cervical biopsies are administered during a procedure known as a colposcopy, which uses a magnifying instrument to help the physician visualize the cervix to observe for any abnormalities. For the biopsy itself, a tool like forceps or a needle may be used to extract small bits of tissue for laboratory examination. There are a few different types of cervical biopsies, including a punch biopsy, a cone biopsy, and endocervical curettage (ECC). The punch biopsy is the most basic of cervical biopsy, involving the removal of small pieces of tissue from one or more parts of the cervix. When a laser or scalpel is used to remove a cone-shaped piece of tissue, it is called a cone biopsy.…...

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References

Jocoy, S. (2009). Cervical biopsy for abnormal cervical cell changes. WebMD. Retrieved online:  http://www.webmd.com/cancer/cervical-cancer/cervical-biopsy-for-abnormal-cervical-cell-changes 

St. John Providence Health System (2012). Cervical biopsy. Retrieved online:  http://www.stjohnprovidence.org/HealthInfoLib/swArticle.aspx?92,P07767

Cancer and Women’s and Men’s Health Cervical cancer is a kind of cancer that takes place in the cells of the cervix, which is basically situated in the lower part of the uterus that links to the vagina. It is imperative to note that different strains or forms of the human papillomavirus (HPV), a sexually transmitted infection, have a role to play in giving rise to a great deal of cervical cancer.
Available Preventative Services
The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) gives the recommendation of screening for cervical cancer in women between the ages of 21 years to 65 years with pap smear for every three-year period. It is also recommended for women between the ages of 30 and 65 years who wish to prolong the screening period, and therefore screening with a mixture of cytology and human papillomavirus testing for every five-year period. In the same manner, the task force…...

Care of Cancer
Cancer diagnosis

In many cases the sooner cancer is diagnosed and treatment begins the better the chances of a person recovering fully. If one develops cancer they can improve the chance of early detection if they have regular medical checkups and do some self-exams. Doctors often find early cancer during a physical exam or when carrying out routine tests even when there were no symptoms presented.

There are several methods that are used to diagnose cancer .with technological advancement these methods are now better as they help in a better understanding of cancer .there are now many diagnostic tools that can be used in cancer detection. Once cancer I suspected a diagnosis is made by pathologists and oncopathologists and imaging radiologists. The common diagnostic methods are;

Biopsy

This test involves a small tissue sample being taken from the area where cancer is suspected using a fine tipped needle, surgical excision or…...

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References

Mandal, A.(2010). Cancer Diagnosis.Retrieved September 24,2013 from  http://www.news-medical.net/health/Cancer-Diagnosis.aspx 

American Society of Clinical Oncolog.(2013). Stages of Cancer. Retrieved September 24,2013 from  http://www.cancer.net/all-about-cancer/treating-cancer/stages-cancer 

Armstrong, B.(2012).What are the different stages of cancer and what do they mean? Retrieved September 24,2013 from http://www.cancerinstitute.org.au/patient-support/what-i-need-to-know/about-cancer/what-are-the-different-stages-of-cancer

Info.com.(2013).Cancer complications. Retrieved September 24,2013 from http://topics.info.com/Cancer-Complications_3416

Preferably, females should be vaccinated before onset of sexual activity. Sexually active females may also benefit from vaccination since there are very few young women are infected with all four HPV types that are targeted by the vaccine. Females who already have been infected with one or more HPV types would still get protection from the vaccine types they have not yet been exposed to. At the present time there is no test available for clinical use to determine whether a female has had any or all of the four HPV types targeted by the vaccine (HPV Vaccine Information for Clinicians, 2008).
The only way to prevent the spread of HPV and reduce the amount of cervical cancer cases that exist is to make the HPV vaccination mandatory. Those who argue against making the vaccination mandatory often claim that providing the vaccine will encourage promiscuity. This was the same argument…...

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Reference List

Boskey, Elizabeth. (2007). Should States Be Allowed to Mandate the HPV Vaccine? Retrieved

November 2, 2009, from About.com Web site:

 http://std.about.com/od/stdsinthemedia/i/hpvmandatevac.htm 

HPV Vaccine Information for Clinicians. (2008). Retrieved November 2, 2009, from Center for Disease Control and Prevention Web site:  http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/STDFact-HPV-vaccine-hcp.htm

Screening for breast cancer before there are symptoms is very important. Screening helps doctors find and treat cancer in its early stages. Treatment is more likely to be successful when the cancer is detected early. A doctor may suggest any of the following screening tests for breast cancer: screening mammogram, clinical breast exam, beast self-exam (Stoppler, 2009).
Mammograms can often show a breast lump before it can even be felt. A mammogram is a picture of the breast that is made with an x-ray. It can also show a cluster of tiny deposits of calcium. These deposits are known as micro calcifications. Lumps can be from cancer, precancerous cells, or a host of other conditions. Further tests may be needed to find out if abnormal cells are present. Women in their 40s and older should have mammograms every 1 to 2 years (Stoppler, 2009).

During a clinical breast exam the health…...

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References

Cancer Gap Between Whites, Blacks May Be Biological in Part. (2009). Retrieved August 11,

2009, from  http://healthday.com/Article.asp?AID=628785 

Carcinogen Found in KFC's New Grilled Chicken. (2009). Retrieved August 13, 2009, from News and Media Center Web site:  http://www.pcrm.org/news/release090521.html 

National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. (2008). Retrieved August 11, 2009, from American

This then leads to the activation of a number of genes whose products trigger cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, or DNA repair" (Lakin 1999, p. 7644).
In research led by Hussain, he investigated the targets of free radicals, which are DNA, proteins, NA, and lipids. He noted that, "mutations in cancer-related genes or post-translational modifications of proteins by nitration, nitrosation, phosphorylation, acetylation or polyADP-ribosylation-by free radiacals or lipid peroxidation byproducts…are some of the key events that can increase the cancer risk" (Hussain 2003, p. 276). Furthermore, changes in DNA occur when the person has been exposed to high levels of nitric oxide or NO. p53 plays a role in that it acts as a mediator to stress but NO "causes p53 accumulation and post-translational modifications that inhibit cellular growth" (Hussain 2003, p. 278). His research has revealed that when exposed to NO during chronic inflammation sans wild-type p53, there might be increased…...

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References

American Cancer Society (n.d.) Cancer Facts & Figures 2010, [online] Available at:   [Accessed: April 19, 2011].http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsfigures/cancerfactsfigures/cancer-facts-and-figures-2010 

American Cancer Society (n.d.) What Causes Cancer?, [online] Available at:   [Accessed: April 19, 2011].http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerCauses/index 

Croce, C. (2008) Oncogenes and Cancer, N Engl J. Med, 358, p. 502-511.

Hasty, P. (2005) the impact of DNA damage, genetic mutation and cellular responses on cancer prevention, longevity and aging: observations in humans and mice, Mech Ageing Dev, 126(1), p.71-77.

neoplasm: "abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should" ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)
benign: noncancerous ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

malignant: cancerous ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

carcinoma: "Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs," ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

sarcoma: "A type of cancer that begins in bone or in the soft tissues of the body, including cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, fibrous tissue, or other connective or supportive tissue" ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

anaplasia: Features of cells which indicate malignancy ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Q2. Identify the correct name for both benign and malignant tumors in the following locations:

Benign Tumors/Malignant Tumors

Pancreas: Adenoma / Adenocarcinoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Fat: Lipoma / Liposarcoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Bone: Osteoma / Osteosarcoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Liver: Hemangioma / Hemangiosarcoma ("Tumors by name,"…...

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References

About immunotherapy. (2016). Chemocare. Retrieved from:

 http://chemocare.com/chemotherapy/what-is-chemotherapy/about-immunotherapy.aspx 

Anaplasia. (2016). USC. Retrieved from:

 http://www.usc.edu/hsc/dental/INTX/05/desc_2.html