¶ … neoplasm: "abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should" ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016) benign: noncancerous ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

malignant: cancerous ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

carcinoma: "Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs," ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

sarcoma: "A type of cancer that begins in bone or in the soft tissues of the body, including cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, fibrous tissue, or other connective or supportive tissue" ("NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms," 2016)

anaplasia: Features of cells which indicate malignancy ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Q2. Identify the correct name for both benign and malignant tumors in the following locations:

Benign Tumors/Malignant Tumors

Pancreas: Adenoma / Adenocarcinoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Fat: Lipoma / Liposarcoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Bone: Osteoma / Osteosarcoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Liver: Hemangioma / Hemangiosarcoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Cartilage: Chondroma / Chondrosarcoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Skin: Squamous Papilloma / Squamous Cell Carcinoma ("Tumors by name," 2016)

Q3. Compare and contrast benign and malignant tumors using the following chart:

Benign Tumors/Malignant Tumors ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Cell growth: Controlled/Uncontrolled ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Shape: Consistent/Varied ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Size: Consistent/Varied ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Nucleus Differentiation: Consistent/Varied ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Cell proficiency: Consistent/Varied ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Antigenic properties: Specialized function/No specialized function ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Cohesiveness: Not jumbled/Jumbled ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Growth rate: Slow/Fast ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Presence of capsule: Connected to one another/Unconnected ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Spread: Contained/Uncontained ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Systemic effects: Unsystemic/Systemic ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Life-threatening: Sometimes, may not be/Yes ("Anaplasia," 2016).

Q4. A tumor is a space-occupying mass that produces predictable local effects as it enlarges. Describe the consequences and manifestations that could result from the listed effects:

i. compression of blood vessels: can cause anemia (Chabner & Thompson 2016)

ii. compression or obstruction of a tube or duct: difficulty swallowing (Chabner & Thompson 2016)

iii. compression of nerves: numbness, tingling, loss of motor functions (Chabner & Thompson 2016)

iv. erosion of blood vessels and other structures: can cause heart attacks or other acute conditions (Chabner & Thompson 2016)

v. invasion and replacement of normal tissue: can cause organ failure if widespread enough (Chabner & Thompson 2016)

Q5. Malignant tumors also have generalized systemic effects. Outline the factors that contribute to the development of the following systemic manifestations:

i. weight loss and cachexia: "Weight loss in cancer patients is due to equal loss of both adipose tissue and skeletal muscle mass" (Dhanapal, Saraswathi. & Govind 2010).

ii. anemia: inability to absorb iron due to cachexia can cause anemia (Dhanapal, Saraswathi. & Govind 2010).

iii. systemic infections: "Macrocirculation or dysregulation of oxygen transport and tissue oxygenation" can cause systemic infections as well as cancer treatment itself ("Risk of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia infection in patients with cancer," 2014).

iv. bleeding: "A cancer may bleed slightly because its blood vessels are fragile. Later, as the cancer enlarges and invades surrounding tissues, it may grow into a nearby blood vessel, causing bleeding" (Chabner & Thompson 2016).

Q6. What is a paraneoplastic syndrome?

"Rare disorders that are triggered by an altered immune system response to a neoplasm" (Santacroce 2015).

Q7. Identify the warning signs of cancer.

Otherwise known as CAUTION: "Change in bowel or bladder habits. A sore that does not heal. Unusual bleeding or discharge. Thickening or lump in the breast, testicles, or elsewhere. Indigestion or difficulty swallowing. Obvious change in the size, colour, shape, or thickness of a wart, mole, or mouth sore. Nagging cough or hoarseness" ("Cancer symptoms," 2016).

Q8. Explain how each of the following assessment tools could assist in the detection and diagnosis of cancer:

i. medical history: Past history of cancer, genetic history, lifestyle

ii. physical examination: Evidence of mass when palpitated iii. X-ray, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT or CAT scan): Create "detailed images" of a body's soft tissue (as in the case of an MRI) or otherwise provide evidence of the mass' composition as consistent with the characteristics of malignancy ("Benign tumors," 2016).

iv. tumor marker: Evaluation of laboratory results that indicate presence of malignant tumor ("Benign tumors," 2016).

v. biopsy and histological and cytological examinations: Uses a sample of the mass to examine the cells and determine if benign or malignant ("Benign tumors," 2016).

Q9. Describe how malignant cells spread from the original tumor to 'distant sites in the body. What is this called?

This process is known...

properties of the noncancerous cells, including immune system cells, present at the original location; and the properties of the cells it encounters in the lymphatic system or the bloodstream and at the final destination in another part of the body" ("How does cancer spread," 2016).
Q10. Distinguish between the grading and staging of neoplasms.

Cancer is graded on a series of stages from 0-IV. Stage 0 cancer is "carcinoma in situ," or contained on-site while stages I-III indicates more aggressive growth and "larger tumor size and/or spread of the cancer beyond the organ in which it first developed to nearby lymph nodes and/or tissues or organs adjacent to the location of the primary tumor" ("Cancer staging," 2015). The higher the number, the more aggressive the cancer. Stage IV cancer is when the cancer has spread to "distant" organs far away from the origin ("Cancer staging," 2015).

Q11. Differentiate between an initiating factor and a promoter in relation to carcinogenesis.

"Initiators," such as a permanent genetic change, cause the initial development of the potential for cancer and are unalterable, while promoters "promote the proliferation of the cell, giving rise to a large number of daughter cells containing the mutation created by the initiator" although they do not change the DNA of the cell ("Cancer initiation, promotion, and progression," 2015).

Q12. Identify eight risk factors for developing cancer and at least one example of each.

Developmental stage: Older people are more likely to develop certain kinds of cancer (like prostate cancer in men) ("Cancer risk factors," 2016).

Genetics: The tendency to develop certain kinds of cancer can be inherited (like the 'breast cancer gene) ("Cancer risk factors," 2016).

Gender: Certain types of cancers are more present in one gender versus another (such as breast cancer in women).

Exposure to environmental toxins: Including radiation, environmental factors which can cause cell damage ("Cancer risk factors," 2016)

Weight: Obesity is a risk factor for many cancers ("Cancer risk factors," 2016).

Lifestyle: Smoking is a risk factor for lung cancer, for example.

Exposure to sunlight: Skin cancer rates are higher in certain areas of the world, particularly for people with little melatonin ("Cancer risk factors," 2016).

Hormones/hormonal treatments: Such as estrogen to treat the symptoms of menopause ("Cancer risk factors," 2016).

Certain kinds of viruses and bacteria: HPV (Human papillomavirus) is a risk factor that increases the chances of developing cervical cancer ("Cancer risk factors," 2016).

Q13. Identify the three conventional interventions employed in the treatment of cancer. Why are they often used in combination, rather than singly?

Radiation, chemotherapy, and surgery are three common forms of treatment used in combination. Given the pervasiveness of cancer and the need to ensure that it does not manifest itself again in a more aggressive form, a common method is to use surgery to remove the tumor of possible, followed by a combination of radiation and/or chemotherapy (or anti-cancerous drugs) to fully ensure that all cancerous cells have been removed ("Radiotherapy," 2015).

Q14: Treatment for cancer may be curative, palliative, or prophylactic. Differentiate among these, including an example of each type of treatment.

Curative attempts to cure the cancer (such as surgery for breast cancer to remove the mass); palliative relieves the symptoms (such as morphine administered in hospice for dying cancer patients); prophylactic is intended to prevent cancer from developing (such as removing the currently healthy breast of a woman with a strong likelihood of developing breast cancer because of her genetic history).

Q15. Explain how radiotherapy is effective in treating some types of cancer.

The goal of using radiotherapy is to destroy "the DNA of cancer cells, causing them to die" ("Radiotherapy," 2015).

Q16. Identify the mechanisms of action of antineoplastic medications.

Antineoplastic medications, otherwise known as "chemotherapy medicines target and treat a specific area affected by cancer. These medicines travel to all parts of the body through the bloodstream" although the medications trigger side effects which affect the entire body (Rogers 2001).

Q17. Identify adverse effects that commonly occur during both radiotherapy and chemotherapy, and explain why they happen.

For chemotherapy, common side effects include hair loss, nausea, fatigue, and suppressed immune functioning (Rogers 2001). Chemotherapy affects the entire body system and not only inhibits the division of cancer cells, although 'normal' non-cancerous cells can usually rectify themselves once the therapy ends (Rogers 2001). These side effects are also common to radiotherapy ("Radiotherapy," 2015). Permanent infertility may also be a side effect ("Radiotherapy," 2015).

Q18. What is a biologic response modifier? How are these agents useful in the treatment of some types of cancer?

In contrast to simply destroying cancer cells, a biologic response modifier or immunotherapy is "a type of treatment that mobilizes the body's immune system to fight cancer. The therapy mainly consists of stimulating the immune system to help it do its job more effectively" ("About immunotherapy," 2016).

Q19. Outline why glucocorticoids may be prescribed during the treatment of cancer.

Glucocorticoids can be used to ease…