Neurons
This is how I would explain the electro-chemical interaction between neurons to a friend.

Imagine standing in a giant room with a large number of other people -- each of you are holding your arms out to either side of your body, like Leonardo Da Vinci's drawing of "Vitruvian Man." The giant room corresponds the brain and the nervous system, and you and the other people are each individual neurons. You have your arms out to either side because neuron cells have a long and skinny central body called the "axon"-so the length of your extended arms corresponds to this part of the neuron -- with receptor areas on either end that have fingerlike filaments, called "dendrites." In reality the field would have to be unebelivably large to actually be equivalent to the brain and nervous, which has billions of neurons. And everybody's fingers would have to be very long, because…...

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References

National MS Society (2014). "Myelin." Online. Accessed 2 February 2014 at:  http://www.nationalmssociety.org/about-multiple-sclerosis/what-we-know-about-ms/what-is-ms/myelin/index.aspx 

Sacks, O. (1999). Awakenings. New York: Vintage.

Each has its own skills associated with that specific areas (e.g. thinking is generally associated with the frontal cortex whilst vision with the occipital lobe; the frontal lobes are associated with motor control, speech, abstract thought, and sense of self, whilst the parietal lobes contain bodily sensations and the temporal lobes record hearing). Likewise each hemisphere has its specific expertise too with the analytical left containing speech, mathematical skills, or language and the right being largely nonverbal and holistic. None of these are exclusive to one side; rather they seem to prefer one side to the other. Observation of association of capabilities to specific neural region has partially been discovered by cutting the corpus colloseum that connects the brain thus 'splitting' the two hemispheres.
The brain can be further divided into the three regions of the forebrain (the most recent part), midbrain, and hind brain (the most primitive and oldest…...

Bacterial Toxins & Damage to Neurons
hich bacterial toxins have negative impacts on the human body? This paper reviews those toxins and their effects on human functions.

Clinical Diseases

Professor F.H. Kayser explains that "Exotoxins" are pathogenic bacteria that are capable of producing a "variety of toxins that are either the only pathogenic factor" in the onset of diseases like diphtheria, tetanus and cholera, or if they aren't the only factor they are at lease a "major factor" in a person getting these three diseases (Kayser, 2011). Not all of these toxins attack the cells; cytotoxins, for example, can produce toxic effects in a number of different host cells, Kayser explains on page 15. But without fail, neurotoxins impact the neurons of the host, according to the author.

Kayser explains that AB toxins bind to "specific surface receptors on target host cells," and he lists the various AB toxins that do attack cells and…...

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Works Cited

Kayser, F.H., and Bienz, K.A. (2011). Medical Microbiology. New York: Thieme Medical

Publishers.

National Health Service. (2014) Tetanus & Botulism Treatments. Retrieved November 25,

2014, from  http://www.nhs.uk .

As part of the experiment, another person entered the study area and expressed feelings of anger at the researcher for some time and at other times remained neutral. Later the researchers found that children who had witnessed the angry person were less likely to play with the toy compared to the children who had witnessed the neutral person. Also the researchers found that even the children who had seen the angry expression would play with the toy if the person did not return to the room. As Meltzoff says, "Mirror neurons show how what you see can be connected with what you do, but human beings can also regulate their behavior" [ScienceDaily]
Commenting on the implications of mirror neuron discovery, psychologist Daniel Stern says, " our minds are not separated or isolated and we are not the only owners of our own mind. Minds get created by virtue of constant…...

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Bibliography

1) ScienceDaily, 'Mirror Neurons: How do we reflect on Behavior', Accessed Dec 14th 2009, available at,  http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070504114259.htm 

2) ESF, 'What do Mirror Neurons Mean', Accessed Dec 14th 2009, available at, http://www.interdisciplines.org/mirror

3) Ramachandran V.S, 'Mirror Neurons and Imitation learning as the driving force behind "the great leap forward" in Human Evolution', Accessed Dec 14th 2009, available at,  http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/ramachandran/ramachandran_p1.html 

4) Kohler, E., Keysers, C., Umilta, M.A., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., and Rizzolatti, G. Hearing sounds, understanding actions: Action representation in mirror neurons. Science (2002), 297: 846-848.

Its [mylelin insulation] growth enables a baby to gradually hold up its head, and its destruction by diseases such as multiple sclerosis causes severe impairment" (Chen 2009). Researchers have also found that both brain tumors and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease may be the result of problems with glia cells. Clearly, glia "are more than mere support cells that cater to the needs of neurons" and a "dynamic dialogue between glia and neurons takes place," contrary to what was once thought (Glia guide brain development in worms, 2008, Virtual orlds).
In the case of the worm that had its glia removed, dendrites or communication receptors "were dramatically shortened and their axons, unable to branch to their expected locations, failed to make the right connections. Moreover, the team showed that neurons located closer to the removed glia have a more abnormal pattern of axon branching compared to those farther away,…...

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Works Cited

Chen, C. The other half of the brain. Retrieved October 6, 2009 at  http://phy.ntnu.edu.tw/~cchen/class/scitran/Brain.pdf 

Glia guide brain development in worms. (2008, July 14). Physorg.com. Retrieved October 6,

2009 at http://www.physorg.com/news135263394.html

Studying glia development. (2008, July 14). Virtual Worlds. Retrieved October 6, 2009 at  http://www.virtualworldlets.net/Resources/Hosted/Resource.php?Name=GilaDev

Imagery and Cognitive Mapping and Their Common Applications
Imagery and its applications

Humans are capable of imagining moving without actually moving in real life. Studies making use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRi) reveal that the same Motor Imagery (MI) part activated during real movement is also activated during imagination. Perhaps similar visual inputs lead to the activation of mirror neurons in the course of observing an action; internal inputs also activate them in cases of motor imagery[footnoteRef:2]. Researchers show that imagery makes use of the same neural pathways as those used in real movement[footnoteRef:3]. [2: Schieber, Marc H. Mirror Neurons: Reflecting on the Motor Cortex and Spinal Cord. February 18, 2013. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213000079 (accessed August 04, 2015). ] [3: Moran, Aidan, Jessica ramham, Christian Collet, Aymeric Guillot, and Tadhg Macintyre. "Motor imagery in clinical disorders: importance and implications." Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2015.]

Kinesthetic Imagery: Research that examined what effects imagery had on…...

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Bibliography

1 Schieber, Marc H. Mirror Neurons: Reflecting on the Motor Cortex and Spinal Cord. February 18, 2013.   (accessed August 04, 2015).http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213000079 

2 Moran, Aidan, Jessica Bramham, Christian Collet, Aymeric Guillot, and Tadhg Macintyre. "Motor imagery in clinical disorders: importance and implications." Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2015.

3 Callow, Nichola, Ross Roberts, Lew Hardy, Dan Jiang, and Martin Edwards. "Performance improvements from imagery: evidence that internal visual imagery is superior to external visual imagery for slalom performance." NCBI, 2013.

4 Bock, Otmar, Nadja Schott, and Charalambos Papaxanthis. "Motor Imagery: lessons learned in movement science might be applicable for spaceflight." Frontiers in Systems NeuroScience, 2015.

Mirror Neurons in the Context Of Cognitive Mapping
There is much controversy with regard to the degree to which vision is tied to cognition, especially when considering the way that mirror neurons can affect the way a person thinks and can influence the respective individual to have a particular view of the surrounding environment. The contemporary society has a very complex understanding of how the visual system works and yet people have trouble comprehending the exact links between the system and the way that people actually perceive the things they see. The fact that individuals store and decode information as a consequence of making use of the visual system is particularly intriguing when considering the idea or mirror neurons.

Through cognitive mapping, the brain interprets information about a person's environment and uses this respective information to influence the individual to act. The person basically takes information and construes a meaning concerning it.…...

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Works cited:

Taylor, M. "The Oxford Handbook of the Development of Imagination," (Oxford University Press, USA, 2 Apr 2013)

Stroke victims who were paralyzed on the left sides of their bodies were analyzed in a case study in which it was noted that approximately five percent of them not only denied their own paralysis but that of other victims in front of them, as well. Ramachandran explained this phenomenon as stemming from damage to these particular patients' mirror neurons, since they could not judge another's movement without the corresponding movement neural cell firing in their own brains. His study of brain waves in humans was in agreement with this premise, wherein it was noted that the MU wave is blocked and disappears when subjects move their hands. This suppression was also attributed to Rizzolati's mirror neuron system, since the suppression occurs when subjects watch others move their hands as well.
Despite the scientific nature of his conclusions, Ramachandran's attribution to the evolution of languages as stemming from the presence…...

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Bibliography

1. Hawks, John (2011, March 11). Language and Spandrels. Retrieved from http://johnhawks.net/taxonomy/term/623

2. Padden, Carol. (2007, May 21). Mirror Neurons…Hmmm… Retrieved from  http://languageevolution.wordpress.com/2007/05/21/mirror-neurons-just-how-relevant-are-they/ 

3. Ramadchandran, V.S. (2005). Mirror Neurons and Imitation Learning as the Driving Force Behind "The Great Leap Forward" in Human Evolution. Retrieved from  http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/ramachandran/ramachandran_p1.html

Phase one means building a strong foundation. The benefits of a strong foundation will be felt for many years to come. apid expansion is good, but not if it means sacrificing quality and support. Customers will talk about the NeuroStar to others. This best advertising that the company can have is to make certain that customers and patients have a positive experience not only with the device, but with the company and staff as well. The company needs to treat its customers the way they wish to be treated themselves. This is the philosophy that will result in building a strong base. This initial phase may take as long as two years.

Phase Two

Once a strong foundation has been established and sales begin to increase as a result of initial marketing and customer support efforts, then the business can focus on picking up the pace. It will be at least five…...

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References

Fitzgerald, P., Fountain, S., & Daskalakis, Z. (2006). A comprehensive review of the effects of rTMS on motor cortical excitability and inhibition. Clinical Neurophysiology 117 (12):

2584 -- 96. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2006.06.712. PMID 16890483.

Baldauf, S. (2009). Brain Stimulation: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. No surgery required -- magnetic pulses treat symptoms of depression and other conditions

Posted July 15, 2009 U.S. News. Retrieved July 17, 2009 from http://health.usnews.com/articles/health/brain-and-behavior/2009/07/15/brain-stimulation-transcranial-magnetic-stimulation.html

NEUONS AND NEUOTANSMITTES Neurons and NeurotransmittersNeurons, in basic terms, are cells (in particular nerve cells) responsible for the sending of messages across the body (Levin, Decker, and Butcher, 2012). They are considered to be the brains as well as nervous systems fundamental units. To a large extent, they make it possible for a wide range of activities and functions to be performed including, but not limited to, walking, eating, talking, breathing and even thinking. Neurotransmitters, on the other hand, could be conceptualized as the substances that enable the communication between neurons, as well as communication between neurons and target tissues. More specifically, neurotransmitters have been defined by Avoli, eader, Dykes, and Gloor (2012), as endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body (173). As the author further points out, these endogenous chemicals play a significant role in the framing of our lives on a daily…...

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ReferencesAvoli, M., Reader, T.A., Dykes, R.W. & Gloor, P. (2012). Neurotransmitters and Cortical Function: From Molecules to Mind. Springer Science & Business Media. Levin, E.D., Decker, M.W. & Butcher, L.L. (E.d.) (2012). Neurotransmitter Interactions and Cognitive Function. Springer Science & Business Media.

What is important is in knowing that among the neurons of the human brain everything is mediated by what is called chemical messenger modules known as neurotransmitters that are released from one cell to another within the human body. Known as neurotransmission this process enables cellular modules to reach their target cell, binds it to the needed receptor, thus influencing the cell that has been reached. The most significant thing here is to remember that each neurotransmitter in the body can only act through its own aligned receptor even thought there might exist within a particular receptor several subclasses, each having different effect when interaction takes place. Three subtypes of recepters are influenced once GABA is released from the human cell, namely GABAA, GABAB, and GABAC. The other human body transmitter modules include acetylcholine, seratonin, aspartate, histamine epinephrine, norpinrphrine, dopamine, adenosine, ATP and nitric oxide....

One such study looked at a general look at what regulates and influence how bold or shy someone is. This manifests in humans but it also manifests in other animals such as fish and rabbits. When looking at fish, it was clear that bold fish had fewer interactions overall while shyer fish were much more conservative and reserved yet held series of reactions with a small group of friends. It is noted that even though animals are much simpler than humans in terms of physiology, they still have very complex social networks (Pike, 2008).

This particular study looked at whether the ratio of bold and shy fish had an overall reaction on the group's composition as a whole. In other words, and to ensure that this is perceived to be applicable to neurons, it is assessed whether the bold fish influence the neuron/synapse pathways and, thus, the overall behavior patterns of…...

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References

IntroPsych. (2013, March 3). How Neurons Communicate | in Chapter 02: Human Nervous System | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey. Table of Contents for Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey. Retrieved March 3, 2013, from  http://www.intropsych.com/ch02_human_nervous_system/how_neurons_communicate.html 

NIH. (2013, March 3). Communication Between Synapses. NIH. Retrieved March 3, 2013, from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709812/

Pike, T. (2008, January 1). Behavioural phenotype affects social interactions in an animal network . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Retrieved March 3, 2013, from  http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1650/2515.full 

Sekata, J. (2004, January 1). ScienceDirect.com - Animal Behaviour - Social experience affects territorial and reproductive behaviours in male leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius. ScienceDirect.com | Search through over 11 million science, health, medical journal full text articles and books.. Retrieved March 3, 2013, from  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347201919529

foundational scientific literature regarding memory and learning. Memory and learning have long been popular subjects of study by psychologists. Although the results of such studies were very insightful, it was difficult to draw deeper, more fundamental conclusions about the learning and memory experiments. However, the rapidly advancing field of neurobiology has provided the field with a deeper understanding of the biological processes underlying learning and memory.
Studies regarding memory using imagery and cognitive mapping

Imagery is often used to improve memory through the process of encoding. When the brain sees a certain image associated with a certain piece of information, it is able to encode that association into the brain. (Goldstein, 2008, p. 347). When the person is given a prompt to recall that information, the brain has an additional prompt, the image associated with that information, to aid in the recollection of that information.

Organization helps to improve the process of…...

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Bibliography

Dagan, R. (2011). Cognitive mapping: Definitions, examples, resources. Intraspec.ca: An online journal. Available at  http://intraspec.ca/cogmap.php .

Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (January 01, 1996). Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain: a Journal of Neurology, 119, 593-609.

Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (2006). Mirrors in the Mind. The Scientific American, November 2006, 55-61.

Goldstein, B.E. (2008). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Autistic Disorder
Autistic disorder is characterized by impairments in communication and social interaction. Autistic children also often display restricted behaviors and repetitive behaviors. These signs of autism usually appear before the age of three. The inability to display empathy and imitate others in autism, a skill crucial to learning communication and social skills, has been hypothesized to result from defects in the mirror neuron system (Williams, Whiten, Suddendorf, & Perrett, 2001). The role of mirror neuron system and how dysfunctions in this system may relate to the deficits observed in autistic disorder are discussed.

Mirror neurons fire when animals or people act or observe the same action performed by another. In humans, brain activity consistent with that of mirror neurons is located the premotor cortex, the supplementary motor area, the primary somatosensory cortex, and the inferior parietal cortex (izzolatti & Craighereo, 2004). There are two chief hypotheses concerning…...

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References

Dawson, G., Toth, K., Abbott, R., Osterling, J., Munson, J., Estes, A., & Liaw, J. (2004). Early Social Attention Impairments in Autism: Social Orienting, Joint Attention, and Attention to Distress. Developmental Psychology, 40, (2), 271 -- 283.

Hadjikhani, N., Joseph, R.M., Snyder, J., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2006). Anatomical Differences in the Mirror Neuron System and Social Cognition Network in Autism. Cerebral Cortex, 16, 1276-1282.

Receveur, C., Lenoir, P., Desombre, H., Roux, S., Barthelemy, C., & Malvy, J. (2005). Interaction and imitation deficits from infancy to 4 years of age in children with autism: a pilot study based on videotapes. Autism, 9, (1), 69-82.

Rizzolatti, G. & Craighereo, L. (2004). The mirror neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169 -- 192.

Diamond
Marian Diamond addressed the nature vs. nurture issue so long debated by researchers and scientists by actually observing the effects of living in different environments on young rats. The beginnings of her research with Donald Head occurred in the 1960's, a time when the brain was not viewed as plastic. When presenting the results of their early research demonstrating a small but significant thicker cerebral cortex in rats raised in enriched environments vs. rats raised in impoverished environments she was actually told, "Young lady, that brain cannot change" (Diamond and Hobson, 1998-page 8). Nonetheless, Diamond believed the neurological basis that the environment provided for brain enrichment is the spreading of dendritic spines in the neuron as a result of environmental stimulation (Diamond and Hobson, 1998-page 25). In fact, research from her lab along with other researchers found that even honey bees' brains responded to environmental stimulation. Based on the work…...

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References

Diamond, M.C., and Hopson, J., 1998: Magic Trees of the Mind: How to Nurture Your Child's

Intelligence, Creativity, and Healthy Emotions from Birth Through Adolescence, Dutton,

New York.

The Neurobiology of ADHD: Exploring the Genetic and Environmental Influences

Introduction

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that affects an individual's attention, behavior, and emotional regulation. Biological factors, including genetic and environmental influences, play significant roles in the development and manifestation of ADHD. This essay will delve into the neurobiology of ADHD, examining its genetic basis, environmental risk factors, and the interplay between these factors.

Genetic Basis of ADHD

Twin and family studies have consistently demonstrated a strong genetic component in ADHD. Research has identified several susceptibility genes located on different chromosomes that have been linked to the disorder. These genes are....

Crafting a Compelling Parkinson's Thesis Statement

A compelling thesis statement for a research paper on Parkinson's disease serves as the guiding principle, providing a clear and concise articulation of the central argument or hypothesis to be explored. It sets the foundation for the entire paper, guiding the structure, content, and analysis.

Steps to Formulate a Strong Thesis Statement:

1. Define the Topic: Clearly identify the specific aspect of Parkinson's disease to be investigated. Consider the disease's characteristics, symptoms, etiology, treatment options, or social implications.

2. Establish a Focused Argument: Develop a specific and arguable claim that....

Utilizing Multi-Layer Perceptron for CO2 Dynamics Modeling in India
Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), a type of artificial neural network, has shown promise in modeling complex relationships and predicting future values. Here's how MLP can be leveraged to simulate CO2 dynamics in India:
1. Data Collection and Preprocessing:
Gather historical data on CO2 emissions, economic indicators (e.g., GDP, energy consumption), and environmental factors (e.g., temperature, rainfall).
Clean and preprocess the data by removing outliers, missing values, and normalizing the features.
2. MLP Architecture Design:
Select an MLP architecture with multiple hidden layers and a suitable number of neurons per layer.
Hyperparameters such as....

Neuroplasticity for Stroke Recovery
Stroke, a sudden loss of brain function due to interrupted blood flow, severely impacts both motor and cognitive abilities. Fortunately, the brain possesses a remarkable capacity called neuroplasticity, which enables it to reorganize and compensate for lost function after a stroke.
Mechanisms of Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity involves several processes that contribute to recovery:
Neurogenesis: Generation of new neurons in certain brain regions, fostering neural regeneration.
Synaptic Reorganization: Strengthening or creating new connections between existing neurons, facilitating alternative pathways for information processing.
Unmasking: Reactivation of dormant neural pathways, which were previously inactive or overshadowed by damaged areas.
Sprouting: Extension of axonal....