Judy Helfand -- Constructing Whiteness
1.) What's your gut reaction?
I was quite surprised with the revelation that Whiteness was not always so clearly defined. I take it for granted that European meant White, if for no other reason than that Europeans look clearly different from Africans or Asians. Helfan's study of Irish experience, in the context of labor relations, is valuable because it reveals deeper socioeconomic dimensions of racial identity.
2.) How were the Irish were first viewed when they arrived to the U.S. In terms of race and what types of jobs did they have?
The Irish were considered, as were most new European immigrants, not quite white because they were of the same socioeconomic situation as black freedmen and Chinese laborers, often taking the same jobs. The Irish arriving in the early 1800s entered the workforce as laborers, working on the canals and railroad and taking on dangerous work "white workers" wouldn't take. The Irish arriving after 1845 pursued work traditionally performed by free blacks - industrial and service occupations such as longshoring, coachmen, housemaids, waiters in restaurants.
3.) What was the Democratic party's position on immigration and slavery and how did they use the Irish immigrants to support them?
The Democrats were, somewhat paradoxically, both pro-immigration...
Its anti-nativist, open-door immigration policy attracted new European immigrants such as the Irish. Also, because the Democrats were heavily composed of Southerners, they supported slavery. To drum up support, the party stirred up fears among new immigrants, especially the Irish, that freed slaves would mobilize to take over white men's jobs. This combination of positions was extremely attractive for Irishmen who were desperately looking to get into the country, find jobs, and keep jobs.
4.) What was the main strategy the Irish used to elevate their status above Black workers and thus gain a clear status as white?
The Democratic Party rewarded loyal supporters, such as the Irish, through labor contracts and employment. The Irish gained a lot of power by supporting the Democratic party, along with working for lower wages. Once entrenched, they sought to keep jobs for just the Irish and block out African-American workers. One common method for accomplishing this was by refusing to work with black workers. This practice served to drive skilled black artisans and mechanics out of the trades and during the pre-Civil War period, thereby diminishing the socioeconomic position of free blacks. The Irish also used violence and threats of violence against the families and homes of African-Americans to force African-Americans out of the workforce.
