Figure 1 portrays three of the scenes 20/20 presented March 15, 2010. Figure 1: Heather, Rachel, and Unnamed Girl in 20/20 Program (adapted from Stossel, 2010). Statement of the Problem For any individual, the death of a family member, friend, parent or sibling may often be overwhelming. For adolescents, the death of person close to them may prove much more traumatic as it can disrupt adolescent development. Diana Mahoney (2008), with the

…Effective Policies and Procedures Can Affect Truancy Rate49Policies and procedures perceived by school leadersto reduce truancy in a public charter schoolAlix DesulmeB.A (St. Thomas University) 2004M.S (St. Thomas University) 2006A Proposal Presented in Partial FulfillmentOf the Requirements for the Degree ofDoctor of EducationUniversity of New EnglandOctober 15, 2017Change the date each time you submit the draft pleaseChapter 1IntroductionStudent truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last

…[…… parts of this paper are missing, click here to view or download the entire document ]…EffectivePoliciesandProceduresCanAffectTruancyRate50PoliciesandproceduresperceivedbyschoolleaderstoreducetruancyinapubliccharterschoolAlixDesulmeB.A(St.ThomasUniversity)2004M.S(St.ThomasUniversity)2006AProposalPresentedinPartialFulfillmentOftheRequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofEducationUniversityofNewEnglandOctober15,2017Chapter1IntroductionStudenttruancyisagrowingproblemintheUnitedStates.Overthelasttwentyyearsthetruancyrateshavegrownnationwidewiththehighestratesininnercities(Jacob&Lovett,2017).Researchindicatesthatstudenttruancyleadstopotentialsociallydeviantbehaviorinadulthood(Dronkers,Veerman,&Pong,2017).Manystudentswhoareabsentforprolongedperiodsaremorelikelytoperformpoorlyacademically,riskingfailureinclassesandfacingdisciplinaryaction.Characteristicsofschoolswithhightruancyratesareuseofonlypunitivetruancyprograms,lackofalternativestudyoptionsforsuspendedstudents,andlackofcounselingandtutoring(Bye,2010).Thereareschoolsthathavebeendoingwellinmaintaininglowtruancyrates,however.Thoseschoolsgivestudentstheoptionfortutoring,allowdistancelearningforsuspendedstudents,andtakeonamixtureofpunitiveandnon-punitivemeasures(Duarte&Hatch,2014).Withanationalrankingof764andaFloridarankingof66,CharterSecondarySchoolisconsideredoneofthebesthighschoolsinthestateregardingstudentattendanceratesandoverallschoolparticipation.Theschoolhasalowtruancyamongminoritystudents,whichisanotableanddistinctivequality,makingitananomalyinthesurroundingarea.Suchaqualitywillbeanalyzedindepthinthispaperalongwiththevariouspossiblereasonsforthestudents’willingnesstoattendclassregularlyandwhatmethodsareemployedbyschoolstafftokeeptheschoolenvironmentpositivebecausetruancyratesaresolowcomparedtootherschoolsintheareaandnationwide.Firstestablishedin2005,CharterSecondarySchoolofMiamiShoreisapubliccharterschoolbuiltontheBarryUniversityCampus,sittingon5acresofproperty.ItisinMiamiShore,anareaofFlorida.Thecurrentenrollmentnumberstandsat599andthecampustypeissuburban.TheschoolmascotaretheHawks.Rate‘A’asacollegepreparatoryschool,theschoolholdsamunicipalcharterviaVillageofMiamiShoresthatservesstudentsfromgrades6-12(CharterSecondarySchoolofMiamiShores,2007).Initsearlyhistory,CharterSecondarySchoolwasoriginallyamiddleschoolestablishedin1997underthename,MiamiShores/BarryUniversityCharterSchool.ThenineportablestructuresthatcomprisedtheschoolservedasanalternativeforMiamiShorestudentsthatwouldotherwiseattendHoraceMannMiddleSchool(CharterSecondarySchoolofMiamiShores,2007).However,after8years,theschoolsecuredmorefundingandin2005,renamedtheschool.TheschoolgainedapermanentstructurethankstothedonationsgivenbythecitizensofMiamiShoresandadditionalfundsfromtheNorthDadeMedicalFoundation.DCSdrawsfundsfromtwoseparatestreams.OnepartofthefundingcomesfromabondissueapprovedbyVillageresidentsandalargetwo-yeargrantgivenbytheNorthDadeMedicalFoundationforFY2006and2007.DCSraisestheremainderofitsoperatingexpensesfromthestatethroughitsFTEfunding(asetamountforeachstudentintheclassroomperday)andthroughthecollectionofstudentfeesforsuchthingsasmaterialsandtrips(CharterSecondarySchoolofMiamiShores,2007).Theschoolhas31full-timeteachersforastudentpopulationof598studentsthatreflectaratiooflessthan20studentsperteacher(19:1)(USNEWS,2017).Thepercentageofeconomicallydisadvantagedstudentsliesat33%withminorityenrollmentof83%.AlthoughclassattendanceishighandthepercentageofstudentswhotestedforAPexamsat81%,thepercentageofstudentswhopasstheAPexamsis47%,orlessthanhalf.EnglishandMathematicproficiencylevelslieat70%and68%respectively,whichisabovethedistrictandnationwideaverage(USNEWS,2017).WithaCollegeReadinessIndexof48.8,theschoolhasroomforimprovement.Whilestudentsearnaveragetestscores,overall,studentswhoattendDoctorsperformbetterthanstudentsatotherschoolsinitsdistrict.ThedistrictaverageforEnglishproficiencyis50%andMathematicproficiencyat37%.Thedistrictaverageforcollegereadinessisat44.7andthisisoutof113schoolsand113,242students(USNEWS,2017).Withagraduationrateof98%,CharterSecondarySchoolofMiamiShoreshasalotgoingforitregardingpositiveaspectsandstudentinterest.UnderstandingtheReasonsforTruancyThereareseveralreasonsfortruancyandtheyareoftencomplexandvaried.Somepertaintoanegativeschoolenvironment,studentbehavior,familyeconomicstatus,mentalhealthproblems,tonameafew.Anegativeschoolenvironmentcancauseproblemsforstudentswishingtolearn.UnlikeCharterSecondarySchool,classroomsacrosstheMiamioftenhavelargeclassroomsforexample,makingitdifficultforstudentstopayattentioninclassandreceiveattentionnecessaryforunderstandingthecurriculum(Losen,2015).Ifforexample,astudenthasquestionsorneedsexamplesforaspecificassignmentinclass,theteachermaynothavethetimeorpatiencetodealwiththatstudentwhenheorshemustdealwith29otherstudentsallneedingthesamelevelofattention.Manyschoolsacrossthecountryhavestrictpoliciesregardingdisruptivestudentbehaviorthatcouldlandastudentundersuspensionoreven,expulsion.Severalfactorscouldcausedisruptivebehavioramongstudents(Losen,2015).Onecommonreasonispoverty.“…highlevelsofpovertyhaveanegativeeffectonschoolbehavior.Thisisattributedlargelytothechronicandacutestressexperiencedbystudentslivinginpoverty.Theexposureisassociatedwithexternalizingbehaviorsthataredisruptiveinschoolsettings”(Hutcheson,2014,p.1).Studentsfacingpovertymaybepartofanunstablehousehold.Theymayendureproblematicandabusiveparents,andhavetodealwithlackofresources.Thesestudentsneedachanceeverynowandthentolearnfromtheirmistakesandreceivethehelpandresourcesthatcouldmakeapositivedifferenceintheirlives.Instead,theyaresuspendedorexpelledandnotgivenachancetoimprove.Highratesofsuspensioncanlendtoahigherrateoftruancy.“ThebifactorstructurereflectedageneralfactorofProblemsinBehavioralEngagementandtwogroupfactors:ProblemsinSocialEngagementandProblemsinAcademicEngagement”(Barghausetal.,2016,p.154).Researchersnotestudentsoftenmaynothaveproblemsacademically,butinsteadsocially.Theymaynotfeelcomfortableengagingwithotherstudents’duetofearofjudgementorinabilitytoproperlysocialize.Providingstudentswiththetoolstobothengagesociallyandacademicallycanallowforahigherpercentageofacademic-basedpositiveoutcomes.Studentinterestmayalsoplayakeyroleintruancy(Dronkers,Veerman,&Pong,2017).Thisisbecausesuspensionsandexpulsionsmayimpactstudentinterestinanegativeway.Whenstudentsreceivesuspensions,theyhavenoaccesstotheschoolwork.Whenthesuspensionends,dependingonhowlongthetimeoutofschoolwas,theymayhaveincreaseddifficultycatchingupwiththeclass.Ifthereisnooptiontocompleteschoolwork,andtheycannotgotoschoolorcontacttheteacherforassignments,itmayputthesekindsofstudentsatanautomaticdisadvantage.Thisisespeciallythecaseiftheyhaveahardtimeacademicallyalready.Tofallbehindinschoolworkwhenthestudenthasexperiencedlowgradescouldsetbackastudentandcouldendupinhavingfailuresinclasses.Byexploringincentivetheoryofmotivationandresearchshowingtheconnectionbetweenexpulsion/suspension,interest,andtruancy,thehopeistoofferclarityinwhytruancyratesarehighandwhatcanbedonetocounteractit.Theseproblems:negativeschoolenvironment,studentbehavior,familyeconomicstatus,mentalhealthproblem(Dronkers,Veerman,&Pong,2017)(Dembo,Wareham,Schmeidler,Briones-Robinson,&Winters,2014)mustbeaddressedfortruancyprogramstobeeffective.Thescopeoftheproblemsassociatedwithtruancyislarge.Forthepurposeofthisstudy,thespecificfocuswillbeschool-basedpoliciesandproceduresthatmaymitigateorreducetruancy.Withoutapropersynthesisofthereasonssurroundingtheproblem,therewillbelimitedunderstandingabouthowtoapproachthestudy.Therefore,itisimportanttostatethescopeofproblemtodefinethefocusandimprovethequalityofthestudy.StatementoftheProblemTruancyratesintheUnitedStatesareagrowingproblem(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014).Whetherastudentisabsentduetoasuspensionorbecausetheywillinglychoosetobeabsent,theproblemhasbecomeworthyofresearchandpossibleintervention.Truancyratesarehigherinschoolswithlowsocio-economicstatus(Dembo,Wareham,Schmeidler,Briones-Robinson,&Winters,2014).Theproblemaddressedbythestudyis:Educationalleadersmayhaveimplementedpoliciesandproceduresinpubliccharterschools,butdocumentationaboutwhicharemosteffectiveandwhytheyareislargelyabsent.Currentpolicieshaveenabledhighertruancyratesduetothezero-toleranceaspectthatenablesharsherandstricterpunishmentofstudentbehavior.“Sincethe1990’s,implementationofzerotolerancepoliciesinschoolshasledtoincreaseduseofschoolsuspensionandexpulsionasdisciplinarytechniquesforstudentswithvaryingdegreesofinfractions”(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014,p.1110).Whenstudentsaresuspended,orexpelledfortheirbehavior,theymayhaveatoughertimecatchingupinschoolandsucceedingintheiracademicendeavors.Thiscanleadtootherproblemsdownthelineasstudentsmatureandbecomeadults.Researchsuggeststheexperienceofsuspensionofexpulsioncouldleadtoillegalbehaviorthatisassociatedwithacriminalrecord.“Beingsuspendedorexpelledfromschoolincreasedthelikelihoodofarrestinthatsamemonthandthiseffectwasstrongeramongyouthwhodidnothaveahistoryofbehaviorproblemsandwhenyouthassociatedwithlessdelinquentpeers”(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014,p.1110).Whenschoolsexpelandsuspendstudents,addingtothetruancyratesoftheschool,negativebehaviorsmayincrease.Thezerotolerancepoliciesofschoolshavebecomethemaincauseforconcerninthesegrowingcasesofsuspensionandexpulsion.Therefore,policiesneedtobechangedtoaddressthisproblem.Todoso,onemustexamineschoolslikeCharterSecondarySchooltodeterminewhatstepstotaketomakeapositivechange.Althoughtruancydoesnotdirectlyleadtocrime,itoftenhasahighcorrelation.PurposeoftheStudyThepurposeofthestudyistounderstandschoolleaders’perspectivesaboutwhethereffectivepoliciesandproceduresreducetruancyandimprovestudentattendance.ByinterviewingkeystaffinCharterSecondarySchool,apubliccharterschoolwithlowtruancylevels,informationoneffectivepoliciesandprocedurescanbegathered.Thesefindingsmayprovideabetterunderstandingofwhatschoolleadersinotherschoolscandotoimprovetruancy.Attendanceplaysalargepartinfacingsuspensionandperformingwellacademically.Researchabouttruancyreductionsuggestsstudentswithmoreattendanceoptionsmaybeabletoovercomedifficultiesthatcontributetotruancy.Effectiveschoolpoliciesthatimproveattendancemaycontainprocessesandoptionsthatprovidesuchsupportandvariability.Withoutunderstandingsuchaspects,littlehelpcouldbegeneratedandimplementedtohelpstudentsinneedandhelpthemavoidhightruancyrates.Thisareaofresearchwillbeexploredintheinterviewsectionandresults.CharterSecondarySchoolhasbetterattendanceandbetteracademicperformancecomparedtoalltheotherschoolsinthedistrict(onaverage).Furthermore,mostofthestudentsareminorityornon-white.Thisschoolisaperfectstartingpointforinvestigationintoeffectiveschoolpolicies.Alookintoothersuccessfulschoolsshouldprovideameasureofeffectivenessneededtounderstandbetterwhatstrategiescanimproveattendance.Itcanalsoshowhowotherschoolshandlethingslikeminoritymajorityandlocationofschoollikeanurban,rural,orsuburbansetting.ResearchQuestions1.Whatmaybethecauseoftruancyinstudents?2.Howdoesincentivetheoryplayaroleinunderstandingschooltruancy?3.Whataretheeffectsofpunitiveornon-punitivetruancyprogramsonstudents?4.Whataresuccessfultruancyprogramsdoingthathasledtoreductionintruancy?5.Whyaresometruancyprogramsunsuccessfulatreducingtruancy?Theresearchneedstodelveintounderstandingthereasonsbehindtruancy.Fortheretobesolutionstothenationwidetruancyproblem,researchmustbedirectedtowardsevidencethatexplainsmotivationsbehindtruancybehaviorandwhataspectsoftruancyprogramshelpeliminatesuchbehavior.Bydevelopingaclearideaofschooltruancyandwhystudentsbecometruant,thehopeistodevelopevidence-basedpracticesthatreduceschooltruancyinstudents.Amyriadofschoolprogramsexistsfortruancy,buttherealityis,notmanyareeffective.QualitativeStudiesandInterviewsThestudyisaqualitativeonethatfocusesontheuseofinterviewstocollectqualitativedata.“Theinterviewhastodaybecomeoneofthemostwidespreadknowledge-producingpracticesacrossthehumanandsocialsciencesingeneralandincriticalpsychologymorespecifically”(Brinkmann,2014,p.1008).Interviewscanrangefromformalinterviewsorinformalinterviews.Theycanbedoneface-to-face,overthephone,orovertheinternet.Formalinterviewshaveastructuretothemwheretheresearcherasksaquestionandtheparticipantanswers.However,ininformalinterviews,therecanbediscussionanddoesnothavetosticktothequestionsasked.Mostqualitativeinterviewshavesomestructuretothemandarelabeled,‘semi-structured’.“Mostqualitativeinterviews,however,aresemi-structured.Inasemi-structuredinterview,theresearcherprovidessomestructurebasedonherresearchinterestsandinterviewguidebutworksflexiblywiththeguideandallowsroomfortherespondent’smorespontaneousdescriptionsandnarratives”(Brinkmann,2014,p.1008).Thereisaneedtounderstandfromthestafforschoolleader’sperspectivesthatworkatCharterSecondarySchoolwhythepoliciesattheschoolwork.Tounderstandwhatimprovementshavebeenmadeandwhatkindofschoolenvironmentsuchpoliciespromote,thiscangiveagoodpictureofwhatisbeingdonetoachievepositiveoutcomesforthestudentpopulationattending.Similarstudiesusinginterviewshavegatheredasignificantamountofinsightfulinformationthatallowsfortheabilitytoanswerimportantquestions.Usingfixedeffectsregressionsandcontrollingfortruancypeergroupeffects,weobservethattruancy(measuredasbothadiscretedummyvariableandacontinuouscountmeasure)positivelycorrelatestoearlyschoolleaving.Atruanthasa3.4percentagepointshigherriskofleavingschoolwithoutaqualification(DeWitte&Csillag,2012,p.549).Thepoliciessurroundingtruancyprogramsandhowacademicstaffreactallowforthemesdiscoveredthroughtheinterviewprocesstothenbecomparedtothemesfoundintheliteraturereviewtoseeifthereisauniversalthemeorconceptbeingappliedthatleadstosuccessfulacademicperformancebystudentsandgoodattendancerecords.Itisimportanttoallowstudentsandstafferstogivetheiropinionsaswellasenablediscussionofwhatcausedthepositiveornegativeopinion.Thiswillallowforeasieranalysisofresponses.Conceptualframework:Organizationalstructuresandleaders’visionTheideathattruancyisacomplexproblemallowsforfocusonthevariousnarrativesincorporatedinattemptsatunderstandingandresolvingtheproblem.Somanydifferentavenuespointtopotentialsolutions,however,experiencedenotesnegativeorpositiveoutcomes.Therefore,theleaders’visonoftheselectedschoolandofsuccessfultruancyprograms,willallowforascopeofwhatmaybevaluabletowardsreductionofstudenttruancyrates.Withintheconceptualframeworkliesthetheoreticalframework,incentiveandmotivation.Animportanttheorythatwillbeexploredinthispaperistheincentivetheoryofmotivation.“…peoplearepulledtowardsbehaviorsthatofferpositiveincentivesandpushedawayfrombehaviorsassociatedwithnegativeincentives.Theincentivetheorysuggeststhatpeoplearemotivatedtodothingsbecauseofexternalrewards”(Rehman&Haider,2013,p.141).Ifstudentsareincentivizedtoattendclassbyreceivingareward,thismaybeacrucialpartmissinginschoolswithhightruancyratesandmayexplainthedownwardspiralofsomestudentswhentheyarepunishedseverelyforbeingabsent.CharterSecondarySchoolhasnon-academicawardsthattheygiveouttostudentswhoarerespectfulandhavegoodattendancerecords.Thesecouldbeincentivesforstudentstocontinueattendingclass.Theschool’sattendanceprocedureisstrict,butallowsforevaluationofthereasonsbehindastudent’sabsence.Suchconsiderationforastudentallowsforroomforthestudenttoresolvehisorherproblemsandcontinuegoingtoschool.Onerule,isthatifastudentmissesanxamountofdays,theywillhavethesameamountofdaystomakeuptheassignment.Althoughthismaybedifficulttoaccomplish,itdoesleavesomewiggleroomforstudents,thusincreasingtheirmotivationtocontinuefollowingtherulesoftheschool.AssumptionsThemainassumptionthatguidesthisstudyisthattruancypoliciesandproceduresarethecornerstoneforreductionintruancyrates.Otherassumptionsincludethenotionthathigherratesoftruancyleadtopooreracademicperformance.Whenstudentsfailtoattendclassvoluntarily,theyputthemselvesatgreaterriskofperformingpoorlyinschool.Thiscanhappenduetotheirinabilitytokeepupinschoolandlackofmotivationtocompleteassignments.Theymaybeunwillingtoattendschoolduetomentalhealthproblems,anunstablehomelife,orphysicalhealthconditions.Anotherassumptionisthatstudentslivinginpovertyandminoritystudentsmayhaveamoredifficulttimewithschoolduetoaturbulenthomelifeanddealingwithinstitutionalizedracism.Althoughthisisnotatopicthatwillbecoveredin-depthinthispaper,itisimportanttorecognizethedifficultiesthatcomefromlackofresourcesandpotentiallybeingaminority,andseehowthatcouldaffecttruancyrates.Thiscouldlendtocreationandimplementationofevenmoreeffectiveschoolpoliciesthatcanultimatelyreducetruancyratesandmaintainthemlowinthefuture.LimitationsThestudywillbelimitedtoonepubliccharterschool.theDoctorsChartersSchool.Thisisbecauseoftheneedtounderstandwhattheschooldoesandthencomparethatinformationtoothersuccessfulschools.Anotherlimitationisthenumberofpeopletointerviewforthestudy.Becausetheinterviewisqualitativeandin-person,notmanypeoplecanandwillbeavailabletoanswerquestions.ThestudyisalsolimitedtotheschoolswithintheUnitedStates.TheliteraturereviewwillonlyexaminehowAmericanschoolshandletruancyandpolicesthateitherdecreaseorincreasetruancyrates.Thefinallimitationisparents.Althoughparentalopinionmaybehelpful,itwouldbebettertoleavetheinterviewstostudentsandstafferswithparentsgivingpermissiontothestudenttospeak.Nootherlimitationsarenoted.ScopeoftheStudyThestudyisqualitative,andwilluseinterviewswithschoolstafftocollectdata.InterviewtranscriptswillbeanalyzedtoidentifyunderlyingthemesfromrespondentsoftheCharterSecondarySchool.Byaskingquestionsthehopeistounderstandwhateffectivepoliciesareinplacethatallowsforbetterattendanceratesthanotherschoolsinthedistrict.Interestingly,theschoolalsofaresbetterregardingacademicscoresandhasahighgraduationrate.Iflocationplaysapart(itisinasuburbanarea),thisshouldbeexploredviatheinterviewquestionstogainabetterunderstandingofallaspectsofeffectivepolicywithintheschool.Theliteraturereviewprovidesafoundation,theinterviewsprovidethedata.Asidefromthequalitativeinterviews,theliteraturereviewwillserveasacomparativeguidetonotonlybasesomeofthequestions,butalsocomparethedatagarneredfromtheinterviews.Ifothersuccessfulschoolshavesimilarpoliciesinplace,thiscouldserveasapotentialstandardthatcanappliednationallytohelpdecreasetruancyinallschoolsthroughoutthecountry.Theliteraturereviewwillalsoservetoprovideexamplesofpoliciesinschoolwithhightruancyratestoseewhatshouldnotbedone.Theresultswillalsobediscussedwithinthecontextofpotentialmodificationthatcanbemadetohelpimproveattendanceratesandacademicsuccessofstudentsevenfurther.Ultimately,itisimportanttoacknowledgewhatCharterSecondarySchoolhastoofferandseewhetherthatcanserveasagaugeforotherschoolsinthedistrict,anymaybe,inthecountry.Althoughthequalitativestudyissmall,onlyincludingsixstudentsandfourstaffmembersfromtheschool,itmayprovidethekindofinsightthatcannotbegatheredelsewhere.Useofdatabasesavailabletohighlightnationwidetruancyratesmayalsobeused,againasacomparativetool.SignificanceThestudycanbeanimportantstepinlearningwhatisworkableforschoolsaimedatreducingtruancyamongstudentsandwhatisnot.Furthermore,findingsmayleadtothisschoolandothersstandardizingeffectiveprogramsandpolicies.PublicschoolsacrosstheUnitedStatesneedtoknowthattheycanhavetheknowledgetoimprovetheirstudentpopulationsacademicprogressandattendance.First,however,theyneedtoseetheinformationthatprovescertainpolicyimplementationsworkandareworththetime,money,andeffort.Likeevidence-basedpracticeinnursing,staffneedtoseeevidenceofpoliciesthathavealreadybeenenabledandimplementedthathaveledtothesuccessofstudentsandtheimprovedratesofattendance.WhileithelpsseeingthestatisticsofasuccessfulschoollikeCharterSecondarySchool,itisevenmoresignificantifschoolsseethestepsittooktoreachthatlevelofsuccess.Thenthatcollectedinformationcanbecomparedtootherschoolsastoidentifywhatcoreprinciplesandactionshavebeenusedtoachievesuchapositiveresult.Growthandpositiveoutcomescanonlycomefromtestedandapprovedpractices.Theconceptualframeworkwillworkasaguidetoseeandunderstandifassumptionsandhypothesescanbeprovenordisprovenviacomparisonandanalysis.Researchersneedtocontinuetheirpursuitofinformationandanalysistoofferpotentialguidelinesanddirectionsforschoolsthatneedit.ThegrowingproblemoftruancyintheUnitedStatesrequiresathoughtfulandconsiderateassessmentofongoingissues.Theseissueswillcontinuetoremainprevalentunlessactionistaken.Actioncannotbetakenunlessthereissoundresearchandevidencebehindit.Lastly,studiesliketheonehereoffersananchorpointtoinvestigateotheraspectsofschoollife,schoolenvironment,andstudentbehavioralproblems.Ifstudentshaveproblemsduetostruggleswithsexuality,genderidentity,orevenpoliticalaffiliation,thiscouldalsobeinvestigatedinfuturestudies.Theresultscouldthenbeusedtospearheadchangesinpoliciesinthenearfuture,leadingtocontinueprogressiontowardsasafeandpositiveschoolenvironment.DefinitionofTermsThetermsutilizedinthisstudyaredetailedbelow.TruancyWhenastudentstaysawayfromschoolwithoutasufficientreason;canbealsolabeledasabsenteeism.Dayssuspendedmaybeincludedintruancyrates.CharterSchool(intheUnitedStates)apubliclyfundedindependentschoolestablishedbycommunitygroups,parents,orteachersunderthetermsofacharterwithnational/localauthority.ExpulsionMeaningpermanentwithdrawing/exclusion,whenastudentisbannedorremovedfromaschoolsystem/universityduetoconsistentviolationsofaninstitution\\\'srules.However,itcanalsobeforasingleoffenseoffittingharshnessinextremecases.SuspensionRegardingschools,suspension(a.k.a.temporaryexclusion)isanobligatoryleavegiventoastudentasamethodofpenaltythatcanlastanywherefromasingledaytoaslongasseveralweeks,whereastudentcannotattendschoolorstepfootinsidetheschool(Kaufman&Kaufman,2013).ConclusionInconclusion,truancyratesareagrowingprobleminUnitedStatesschools.CharterSecondarySchoolisoneschoolthataimstoreducetruancyratesandhavedonesoaccordingtorecentstatistics.ByexploringCharterSecondarySchool’sschoolpoliciesandotherschoolpoliciesthatincreaseordecreasetruancyratesinFloridathestudyhopestounderstandwhatmaycausetruancyinschoolsandwhatreducesit.Ifbetterandimprovedhandlingofstudentissuesisthesolutiontotruancy,itneedstobeexplored.Thenextsectionisaliteraturereview.TheliteraturereviewwillfocusonimportantpoliciesalreadyinplaceinotherschoolsandhowthesepoliciescouldbesimilarordifferenttoCharterSecondarySchoolalongwiththenegativeeffectsofhightruancyratesandthecauseoftheseratesinschools.Thenextsectionallowsonetoseethroughrecentliterature,thesignificanceoftruancyandhowitconnectsschoolmeasureswithstudentbehavior.Someschoolstakepunitivemeasurestowardstruancy,otherstakenon-punitive,andstillmoretakeamixtureofboth.Whyaresuchmeasuresadopted?Theaimistounderstandthisandwhystudentsaretruant.Thereareseveralfactorsthatcanbeatplayfromenvironmenttomentalhealth,andsoforth.Theliteraturereviewwillbringintocontextmoreoftheseaspects.Withsomanyschoolsthroughoutthecountryexperiencinghightruancyrates,whatdoesCharterSecondarySchooldothatenableshighattendanceamongitsstudentpopulation?Whatpolicieshastheschooladoptedtosupportapositiveenvironmentthatmotivatesstudentstoattendschoolandlearn?Chapter2LiteratureReviewRoadmap:Thisliteraturereviewwillfocusonseveralkeytopicsbecausemanyreasonscontributetotruancy.Theseare:addressingschooltruancy,school-basedprograms,punitive/non-punitivetruancyprograms,studentandfamilycharacteristics,parentalengagement,tacklingtheschooltruancyproblem,typesofprogramslikeschool-basedprograms,problemswithcurrenttruancyprograms,characteristicsofsuccessfultruancyprograms,andtheoreticalframework:IncentiveTheoryofMotivation.Thehopeistoilluminatethewaytowardsunderstandingtheproblemofschooltruancyandwaystoreduceit.(Ican’tincludenaturaldisastersasIfeelthatisitsowntopicandtooextensivetojustbrieflycover.)Introduction:AddressingSchoolTruancyStudenttruancyhasbecomeamajorissueschoolstrytotackle.Therefore,toimprovetruancytheneedarisestoresearchandcultivateworthwhilestrategiestoreducenegativebehaviorsthatleadtotruancy.However,thereisalsoaneedtounderstandwhystudentsaretruantinthefirstplace.Povertyandnegativeschoolenvironmentareissuesthathaveraisedconcernforthelikelihoodoftruancyinstudents.Thissectionhopestoilluminatetheissueofstudenttruancy.Itbecomesdifficulttoidentifythecostsofbenefitsofvariousmeasures.Thosethatfallintothepunitivedisciplineisnecessarybecausetraditionalistviewsbelieveadherencetorulesleadstopositiveoutcomes.Thoseinthecampofnonpunitivedisciplinedesiretodemonstratehowgivingstudents’optionscanleadtobetterresultsnotjustintruancyrates,butthepersonalgrowthofthestudent.Withallthestrategiesandmethodsavailable,itcanbedifficultforschoolleadstodeterminewhatmixtureofpunitiveandnonpunitivedisciplinewillwork.Thedesireistoshowthesuccessofprogramsand/orschoolsthathaveenabledareductionintruancyratesaswellaspoliciesineffectthatincreasetruancyratestodemonstratehowtoimprovestudenttruancy.School-basedProgramsAsidefromcreatingastrongerconnectiontocommunity,anotherwayschoolscanandhavehelpeddecreasetruancyratesisthroughtruancyreporting.Truancyreportingallowsstudentstobeassessedtoseeiftheyarehigh-risk.Becausetruancycanhaveaprofoundlynegativeeffectonstudentsinthelongterm,schoolshavebegunbecomingmorestringentontruancyreporting.“Atruanthasa3.4percentagepointshigherriskofleavingschoolwithoutaqualification”(DeWitte&Csillag,2012,p.549).Theresearchersnotethatbecausetruancyreportingallowsforbetterassessmentofat-riskyouth,itcanprovideameansofidentifyingpotentialproblemswithstudentearlyon.Thismakestruancyreportingapreventativemeasure.Suchapreventativemeasureappearstohavepositiveeffectsonstudentsatrisk.“.Theideaisstraightforward:ifstudentsarebettermonitoredwithrespecttotruancy,schoolscanidentifymoreeasilystudentsatrisk.Theresultsindicatethatimprovedtruancyreportingsignificantlyreducesschooldropoutby5percentagepoints”(DeWitte&Csillag,2012,p.549).Tojumpstarttheprocessofhelpingstudents,schoolsmustfigureoutwaystohelpstudentsconnecttotheircommunity.Then,apreventativemeasureusedtohelpidentifyat-riskyouth,sotheycanhaveinterventionsthatcanleadtopositiveeducationaloutcomes(DeWitte&Csillag,2012).Schoolsliketheoneusedforthisstudyandthoselikeit,alreadyhaveinplacearobusttruancyreportingprotocol.Theruleswithinthisprotocolshowthatstudentscannotbeabsentmorethanafewdaysortheschoolwillbeinvolvedandwillcontactthestudent’shousehold.Moreresearchshouldbededicatedtohowpreventativemeasurescanexpandtoincludeotherwaystoassessforat-riskbehavior.Thiscanincludelatenessforclass,missedhomeworkassignments,andsoforth.Ifthiscanbedone,thismayfurtherallowforagreaterassessmentofpotentialtruancyproblemsinthefuture.Applyingresearchtopracticeispopularinhealthcare,perhapsitcanalsobecomepopularineducationasmoreinformationcomesoutonhotbuttontopicslikestudenttruancy.PunitivePunitivemeasuresfortruancycanbeseenthroughtheintroductionofthird-partypolicinginschools.“Third-partypolicingisanapproachtocrimepreventionandcontrolinvolvingthepolicepartneringwithorganizationsorindividualstopreventorreducecrimeproblems”(Nitschke,Mazerolle,&Bennett,2014,p.5211).Relyingonavailablecriminal,regulatory,orcivillawsandrules(legallevers)thatallowthirdpartiestotakeaccountability,partially,forcontrolofcrime,itcreatesanenvironmentwhereapprehensionofproblemstudentsisfeasible.Thismayhelpschoolsdealwiththegrowingdelinquencyinstudents,butmayalsomakeiteasierforstudentstobecomepartofthecriminaljusticesystematanearlyage.Punitivemeasurescanalsobecostlier.Thisisbecausepunitivemeasureslikeexpulsionorsuspensioncanfurtherincreasethelikelihoodofstudentsbeingtruantandperformingpoorlyacademically(Shelton,2014).Studentsmustbeguidedtowardsapositiveoutcomeandthatmeansreducingthebeliefthatpunitivemeasureswillkeepstudentsfrombeingtruant.Althoughshort-termresultsmayindicatereduction,thelong-termeffectscouldbemorenegativeandlong-lasting(Shelton,2014).Sheltonmentionedthatstudentswhofacepunitivemeasuresmayhaveahigherchanceofcommittingcrimesversusthosewhofacednon-punitivemeasures.Whilesomeresearchsuggestspolice-interventionregardingtruancycanhelpstudentsinthatparentsaremoreawareofwhathappenstothem,therearestillmanyfactorstoconsiderinrelationtoefficacy.Forexample,police-interventionmayleadtohigherparentalawareness,butalsoincreasedpotentialfortruantstudentstoendupinthejuvenilecriminaljusticesystem(Mazerolle,Bennett,Antrobus,&Eggins,2017).Amixtureofbothpunitiveandnon-punitivemeasuresmaybemostbeneficialintacklingtheproblemoftruancy.Non-PunitivePunitivemeasuresfortruancyhavetheirplaceinschools.However,researchshowsnon-punitivemeasuresarealsousefulandofferachanceforstudentstoimproveandremovesomeofthestigmaattachedtopastmistakes.Successfulprotocolsintegrateflexibilityintostandardmethodstohelptheschool,family,andstudent.Suchprogramsunderstandindividualstudent’sneedsanddowhateverisessentialtoassistthefamilyandstudentinvolvedintruancy(Mallett,2015).OnestudyinAustraliaaimedtounderstandtruancyandtheeffectsoftruancytogenerateprogramsthatallowedforeffectivemeasuresatreducingtruancyratesamongstudents(Taylor,Gray,&Stanton,2016).Thisshowsthatwithproperresearch,non-punitiveoptionsarefeasible.However,theymustbedoneinconjunctionwithsignificantresearchthatallowsabetterunderstandingoftheneedsofstudentswhoparticipateintruancy.Theexpectationisthatnon-punitivemeasuresaremoreeffectivethanpunitivemeasures.However,ifthereisnosignificantdifference,non-punitivemeasuresmustbeassessedforefficacy.Haight,Chapman,Hendron,Loftis,&Kearney(2014),demonstratedhownon-punitivemeasureslikeatruancyprogrammaynotworkifakeyprocessisnotimplemented.Meaning,ifthereisnoskill-buildingaspecttotheprogramliketutoring,thechancefortruancytodecreasedeclines.StudentCharacteristicsTruancycanhavealastingimpactonthelifeofastudent.“Schooldropouthasbeenextensivelystudiedintheliteratureasacorrelateofnegativelifeoutcomes.Aprecursortoschooldropoutistruancy,theunexcusedorillegitimatestudentabsencefromschool”(Rocque,Jennings,Piquero,Ozkan,&Farrington,2016,p.592).Studentsmaybeabsentortruantduetoamultitudeofreasons.Researchersidentifiedthroughafewexaminedstudies,thatstudentswhoareoftenmoretruantthanothers,maybemoreinvolvedincrime.Suchinvolvementpointstothenegativecorrelationoftruancyandlaterlifeoutcomeslikedelinquencyandcrime.Theresearchersalsostatetruancycanleadtoproblemdrinking.“Resultsindicatethattruancyhaslong-lastingassociationswithnegativelifeoutcomes,especiallyfornon-violentcrimeandproblemdrinking”(Rocque,Jennings,Piquero,Ozkan,&Farrington,2016,p.592).Ifaddictiveorcriminalbehaviorleadstotruancyandtruancycanfurtherleadtoaddictiveorcriminalbehavior,itseemsacyclethatjustfeedsitselfwithnegativeoverallbehavior.Thisisimportanttoknowbecausestudentsexperiencingaddictionproblemsorbecominginvolvedindelinquentbehaviorcanreceivehelptonotonlykeepthemfromengaginginsuchriskyactionswhilealsopositivelycontributingtoreductionintruancyrates.Essentially,thenotionthatfortheretobeareductionintruancyrates,schoolsmusthelpstudentsdealwiththenegativebehaviorstheyareengagingin,outsideofschool.Thesenegativebehaviorscouldcomebecauseofnegativeexperiences.Frombullyingtopooracademicperformance,studentsoftenexperiencestressthatcouldbedetrimentaltotheiracademicsuccess.Birkett,Russell,&Corliss,(2014)observetherolesexual-orientationdisparitieshaveonstudentsinrelationtoacademicachievementandtruancy.Throughtheutilizationofpoolinformation,theyidentifiedbeingpartoftheLGBTgroupaffectedratesoftruancyandacademicperformance.“LGBT-identifiedyouthsreportedsignificantlyelevatedoddsoftruancyandlowgrades(oddsratios?=?1.6–3.2;allP?

…[…… parts of this paper are missing, click here to view or download the entire document ]…EffectivePoliciesandProceduresCanAffectTruancyRate47EFFECTIVEPOLICIESANDPROCEDURESCANAFFECTTRUANCYRATEPoliciesandproceduresperceivedbyschoolleaderstoreducetruancyinapubliccharterschoolAProposalPresentedinPartialFulfillmentOftheRequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofEducationUniversityofNewEnglandOctober15,2017Chapter1Introduction:PrevalenceofStudentTruancyStudenttruancyisagrowingproblemintheUnitedStates.Overthelasttwentyyearsthetruancyrateshavegrownnationwidewiththehighestratesininnercities(Jacob&Lovett,2017).Researchindicatesthatstudenttruancyleadstopotentialsociallydeviantbehaviorinadulthood(Dronkers,Veerman,&Pong,2017).Manystudentswhoareabsentforprolongedperiodsaremorelikelytoperformpoorlyacademically,riskingfailureinclassesandfacingdisciplinaryaction.Characteristicsofschoolswithhightruancyratesareuseofonlypunitivetruancyprograms,lackofalternativestudyoptionsforsuspendedstudents,andlackofcounselingandtutoring(Bye,2010).Thereareschoolsthathavebeendoingwellinmaintaininglowtruancyrates,however.Thoseschoolsgivestudentstheoptionfortutoring,allowdistancelearningforsuspendedstudents,andtakeonamixtureofpunitiveandnon-punitivemeasures(Duarte&Hatch,2014).Theselowtruancyratessomeresearcherssuggestcomebecauseofpoverty,crime,andrace(Bye,2010).However,thereareschoolswithnon-whitestudentsthathavelowtruancyrates.Withanationalrankingof764andaFloridarankingof66,DoctorsCharterSchoolisconsideredoneofthebesthighschoolsinthestateregardingstudentattendanceratesandoverallschoolparticipation.Theschoolhasalowtruancyamongstudents,whichisanotableanddistinctivequality.Suchaqualitywillbeanalyzedindepthinthispaperalongwiththevariouspossiblereasonsforthestudents’willingnesstoattendclassregularlyandwhatmethodsareemployedbyschoolstafftokeeptheschoolenvironmentpositive.Firstestablishedin2005,DoctorsCharterSchoolofMiamiShoreisapubliccharterschoolbuiltontheBarryUniversityCampus,sittingon5acresofproperty.ItisinMiamiShore,anareaofFlorida.Thecurrentenrollmentnumberstandsat599andthecampustypeissuburban.TheschoolmascotaretheHawksandtheprincipleisDr.KellyAndrews.Rate‘A’asacollegepreparatoryschool,theschoolholdsamunicipalcharterviaVillageofMiamiShoresthatservesstudentsfromgrades6-12(DoctorsCharterSchoolofMiamiShores,2007).ThegradesDoctorsservesarefrom6-12.Initsearlyhistory,DoctorsCharterSchoolwasoriginallyamiddleschoolestablishedin1997underthename,MiamiShores/BarryUniversityCharterSchool.Thenineportablestructuresthatcomprisedtheschool,servedasanalternativeforMiamiShorestudentsthatwouldotherwiseattendHoraceMannMiddleSchool(DoctorsCharterSchoolofMiamiShores,2007).However,after8years,theschoolsecuredmorefundingandin2005,renamedtheschoolitscurrentname.TheschoolgainedapermanentstructurethankstothedonationsgivenbythecitizensofMiamiShoresandadditionalfundsfromtheNorthDadeMedicalFoundation.DCSdrawsfundsfromtwoseparatestreams.OnepartofthefundingcomesfromabondissueapprovedbyVillageresidentsandalargetwo-yeargrantgivenbytheNorthDadeMedicalFoundationforFY2006and2007.DCSraisestheremainderofitsoperatingexpensesfromthestatethroughitsFTEfunding(asetamountforeachstudentintheclassroomperday)andthroughthecollectionofstudentfeesforsuchthingsasmaterialsandtrips(DoctorsCharterSchoolofMiamiShores,2007).Theschoolhas31full-timeteachersforstudentsdisplayingforastudentpopulationof598studentsthatreflectaratiooflessthan20studentsperteacher(19:1)(USNEWS,2017).Thecompletepercentageofeconomicallydisadvantagedstudentsliesat33%withcompleteminorityenrollmentatof83%.Althoughclassattendanceishigh,andthepercentageofstudentswhoAPtestedforAPexamspercentageat(81%),thepercentageofstudentsthatwhopasstheAPexamsstandatis47%,orlessthanhalf.EnglishandMathematicproficiencylevelsliealsohavelowpercentagesat70%and68%respectively,whichisabovethedistrictandnationwideaverage(USNEWS,2017).WithaCollegeReadinessIndexof48.8,theschoolhasroomforimprovement.EvenwiththeWhilestudentsearnaveragetestscores,overall,studentswhoattendDoctorsperformsbetterthanstudentsatotherschoolsinitsdistrict.ThedistrictaverageforEnglishproficiencyis50%andMathematicproficiencyat37%.Thedistrictaverageforcollegereadinessisat44.7andthisisoutof113schoolsand113,242students(USNEWS,2017).Withagraduationrateof98%,DoctorsCharterSchoolofMiamiShoreshasalotgoingforitregardingpositiveaspectsandstudentinterest.Thesekindsofschoolsaimtoprovidethebridgefortruancytobeimproved.However,therearisesaneedtounderstandwhystudentsaretruantinthefirstplace.Parentsworrythattheirchildrenwillbetruantduetocertainbehaviors.However,thesebehaviorscouldbeattributedtoanegativeenvironmentinthehomeoratschool.UnderstandingtheReasonsforTruancyThereareseveralreasonsfortruancyandtheyareoftencomplexandvaried.Somepertaintoanegativeschoolenvironment,studentbehavior,familyeconomicstatus,mentalhealthproblems,tonameafew.Parentsthatputtheirchildreninschoolhaveworriesthattheymaynotreceivethekindofhighqualityeducationtheydeserve.Anegativeschoolenvironmentcancauseproblemsforstudentswishingtolearn.UnlikeDoctorsCharterSchool,classroomsacrosstheMiamioftenhavelargeclassroomsforexample,makingitdifficultforstudentstopayattentioninclassandreceiveattentionnecessaryforunderstandingthecurriculum(Losen,2015).Ifforexample,astudenthasquestionsorneedsexamplesforaspecificassignmentinclass,theteachermaynothavethetimeorpatiencetodealwiththatstudentwhenheorshemustdealwith29otherstudentsallneedingthesamelevelofattention.Manyschoolsacrossthecountryhavestrictpoliciesregardingdisruptivestudentbehaviorthatcouldlandastudentundersuspensionoreven,expulsion.Severalfactorscouldcausedisruptivebehavioramongstudents(Losen,2015).Onecommonreasonispoverty.“…highlevelsofpovertyhaveanegativeeffectonschoolbehavior.Thisisattributedlargelytothechronicandacutestressexperiencedbystudentslivinginpoverty.Theexposureisassociatedwithexternalizingbehaviorsthataredisruptiveinschoolsettings”(Hutcheson,2014,p.1).Studentsfacingpovertymaybepartofanunstablehousehold.Theymayendureproblematicandabusiveparents,andhavetodealwithlackofresources.Thesestudentsneedachanceeverynowandthentolearnfromtheirmistakesandreceivethehelpandresourcesthatcouldmakeapositivedifferenceintheirlives.Instead,theyaresuspendedorexpelledandnotgivenachancetoimprove.Highratesofsuspensioncanlendtoahigherrateoftruancy.“ThebifactorstructurereflectedageneralfactorofProblemsinBehavioralEngagementandtwogroupfactors:ProblemsinSocialEngagementandProblemsinAcademicEngagement”(Barghausetal.,2016,p.154).Researchersnotestudentsoftenmaynothaveproblemsacademically,butinsteadsocially.Theymaynotfeelcomfortableengagingwithotherstudents’duetofearofjudgementorinabilitytoproperlysocialize.Providingstudentswiththetoolstobothengagesociallyandacademicallycanallowforahigherpercentageofacademic-basedpositiveoutcomes.Studentinterestmayalsoplayakeyroleintruancy(Dronkers,Veerman,&Pong,2017)..Thisisbecausesuspensionsandexpulsionsmayimpactstudentinterestinanegativeway.Whenstudentsreceivesuspensions,theyhavenoaccesstotheschoolwork.Whenthesuspensionends,dependingonhowlongthetimeoutofschoolwas,theymayhaveincreaseddifficultycatchingupwiththeclass.Ifthereisnooptiontocompleteschoolworkviaonlineaccess,andtheycannotgotoschoolorcontacttheteacherforassignments,thiswhichputsthesekindsofstudentsatanautomaticdisadvantage.Thisisespeciallythecaseiftheyhaveahardtimeacademicallyalready.Tofallbehindinschoolworkwhenthestudenthasexperiencedlowgradescouldsetbackastudentandcouldendupinhavingfailuresinclasses.Byexploringincentivetheoryofmotivationandresearchshowingtheconnectionbetweenexpulsion/suspension,interest,andtruancy,thehopeistoofferclarityinwhytruancyratesarehighandwhatcanbedonetocounteractit.Theseproblems:negativeschoolenvironment,studentbehavior,familyeconomicstatus,mentalhealthproblem(Dronkers,Veerman,&Pong,2017)(Dembo,Wareham,Schmeidler,Briones-Robinson,&Winters,2014)mustbeaddressedfortruancyprogramstobeeffective.ThescopeofthepProblemsassociatedwithtruancyislarge.Forthepurposeofthisstudy,thespecificfocuswillbeschool-basedpoliciesandproceduresthatmaymitigateorreducetruancy.sneedtobeclarified.Withoutapropersynthesisofthereasonssurroundingtheproblem,thereiswillbelimitedunderstandingabouthowtoapproachthestudy.Therefore,itisimportanttostatewhatthiskindthescopeofproblemistodefinethefocusandimprovepotentialexaminationandsynthesis.thequalityofthestudy.StatementoftheProblemTruancyratesintheUnitedStatesareagrowingproblem(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014).Whetherastudentisabsentduetoasuspensionorbecausetheywillinglychoosetobeabsent,theproblemhasbecomeworthyofresearchandpossibleintervention.Truancyratesarehigherinschoolswithlowsocio-economicstatus(Dembo,Wareham,Schmeidler,Briones-Robinson,&Winters,2014).Mostofthestudentsthatattendtheschoolareofminority.Someofthetruancyproblemsoccurinminoritypopulations(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014).Whatpolicieshastheschooladoptedtosupportapositiveenvironmentthatmotivatesstudentstoattendschoolandlearn?Theproblemaddressedbythestudyis:Educationalleadersmayhaveimplementedpoliciesandproceduresinpubliccharterschools,butdocumentationaboutwhicharemosteffectiveandwhytheyareislargelyabsent.Actionmustbetakentohelpavoidproblemsinthefuture.Currentpolicieshaveenabledhighertruancyratesduetothezero-toleranceaspectthatenablesharsherandstricterpunishmentofstudentbehavior.“Sincethe1990’s,implementationofzerotolerancepoliciesinschoolshasledtoincreaseduseofschoolsuspensionandexpulsionasdisciplinarytechniquesforstudentswithvaryingdegreesofinfractions”(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014,p.1110).Whenstudentsaresuspended,orexpelledfortheirbehavior,theymayhaveatoughertimecatchingupinschoolandsucceedingintheiracademicendeavors.Thiscanleadtootherproblemsdownthelineasthestudentsmatureandbecomeadults.Researchsuggeststheexperienceofsuspensionofexpulsioncouldleadtoillegalbehaviorthatisassociatedwithacriminalrecord.“Beingsuspendedorexpelledfromschoolincreasedthelikelihoodofarrestinthatsamemonthandthiseffectwasstrongeramongyouthwhodidnothaveahistoryofbehaviorproblemsandwhenyouthassociatedwithlessdelinquentpeers”(Monahan,VanDerhei,Bechtold,&Cauffman,2014,p.1110).Whenschoolsexpelandsuspendstudents,addingtothetruancyratesoftheschool,negativebehaviorsmayincrease.Thezerotolerancepoliciesofschoolshavebecomethemaincauseforconcerninthesegrowingcasesofsuspensionandexpulsion.Therefore,policiesneedtobechangedtoaddressthisproblem.Todoso,onemustexamineschoolslikeDoctorsCharterSchooltodeterminewhatstepstotaketomakeapositivechange.Althoughtruancydoesnotdirectlyleadtocrime,itoftenhasahighcorrelation.PurposeoftheStudyThepurposeofthestudyistounderstandhowschoolleaders’perspectivesaboutwhethereffectivepoliciesandproceduresycanenableimprovedreducetruancyandimprovestudentattendanceforstudents.ByinterviewingkeystaffinDoctorsCharterSchool,asuccessfulpubliccharterschoolinrelationtowithlowtruancylevels,theremaybeenoughinformationoneffectivepoliciesandprocedurescanbegathered.Thesefindingsmayythatcanprovideabetterunderstandingofwhatschoolleadersincanbedoneinotherschoolscandotoimprovetruancy.Onepotentialaspectofeffectiveschoolpolicyishomeschooling.Schoolswiththeoptionofhomeschoolingmayprovidehopeforthosewhocannotattendschoolorwhoaresuspendedandareunabletoattend.Attendanceplaysalargepartinfacingsuspensionandperformingwellacademically.However,ifschoolshaveanonlineoption,thismayhelpstudentskeepupwithschoolworkandhaveoptions.TheDoctorsCharterSchoolhasastudentportalontheirwebsitethatallowsstudentstoaccessonlineresourcesandevencontactteachersandstaff.ThroughhereResearchabouttruancyreductionsuggestsstudentswithmoreattendanceoptionsmayWhenstudentshavemoreoptions,theycanbeabletoovercomedifficultiesthatcontributetotruancy.theymayfacewithothersorintheirhousehold.Effectiveschoolpoliciesthatimproveattendancemaycontainprocessesandoptionsthatprovidesuchsupportandvariability.Withoutunderstandingsuchaspects,littlehelpcouldbegeneratedandimplementedtohelpstudentsinneedandhelpthemavoidhightruancyrates.Thisareaofresearchwillbeexploredintheinterviewsectionandresults.DoctorsCharterSchoolhasbetterattendanceandbetteracademicperformancecomparedtoalltheotherschoolsinthedistrict(onaverage).Furthermore,mostofthestudentsareminorityornon-white.Thisschoolisaperfectstartingpointforinvestigationintoeffectiveschoolpolicies.Alookintoothersuccessfulschoolsshouldprovideameasureofeffectivenessneededtounderstandbetterwhatstrategiescanimproveattendance.Itcanalsoshowhowotherschoolshandlethingslikeminoritymajorityandlocationofschoollikeanurban,rural,orsuburbansetting.ResearchQuestions1.HowdothepoliciesineffectatDoctorsCharterSchooldiscouragetruancy?Howdoschoolleadersdescribeattendance?Anti-truancy?Policiesandprocedures?2.Whatpoliciesandproceduresareineffectinotherpubliccharterschoolswhereattendanceishigh?andhowcantheycontributetoananti-truancypolicy?Doesthisinformationshowupintheliteraturereview?Ifnot,thenplantokeepaversionofthisquestion.3.TowhatdegreedostaffatDoctorsperceivetheyadheretothewrittenpoliciesandproceduresy?”Thisquestionisamorespecificversionofthethirdquestiontohelpunderstandwhythepolicyimplementedintheseschoolsisineffective.Ifthepoliciespromotestrictadherence,itcouldincreaseratesofsuspensionandexpulsion,increasingratesoftruancy.4.Cantheoptionofonlineeducationreducetruancyratesinschools?Onlineeducationcanbeapowerfultoolforlearning.Asschoolbegintomodernize,theymayofferstudentportalsasseeninDoctorsCharterSchool.However,canonlineclassesbeaviableoptionforstudentsexperiencingproblemsinschool?QualitativeStudiesandInterviewsThestudyisaqualitativeonethatfocusesontheuseofinterviewstocollectqualitativedata.“Theinterviewhastodaybecomeoneofthemostwidespreadknowledge-producingpracticesacrossthehumanandsocialsciencesingeneralandalsoincriticalpsychologymorespecifically”(Brinkmann,2014,p.1008).Interviewscanrangefromformalinterviewsorinformalinterviews.Theycanbedoneface-to-face,overthephone,orovertheinternet.Formalinterviewshaveastructuretothemwheretheresearcherasksaquestionandtheparticipantanswers.However,ininformalinterviews,therecanbediscussionanddoesnothavetosticktothequestionsasked.Themajorityofqualitativeinterviewshavesomestructuretothemandarelabeled,‘semi-structured’.“Mostqualitativeinterviews,however,aresemi-structured.Inasemi-structuredinterview,theresearcherprovidessomestructurebasedonherresearchinterestsandinterviewguidebutworksflexiblywiththeguideandallowsroomfortherespondent’smorespontaneousdescriptionsandnarratives”(Brinkmann,2014,p.1008).Thereisaneedtounderstandfromthestafforschoolleader’sperspectivesthatworkatDoctorsCharterSchoolwhythepoliciesattheschoolwork.Tounderstandwhatimprovementshavebeenmadeandwhatkindofschoolenvironmentsuchpoliciespromote,thiscangiveagoodpictureofwhatisbeingdonetoachievepositiveoutcomesforthestudentpopulationattending.Similarstudiesusinginterviewshavegatheredasignificantamountofinsightfulinformationthatallowsfortheabilitytoanswerimportantquestions.Usingfixedeffectsregressionsandcontrollingfortruancypeergroupeffects,weobservethattruancy(measuredasbothadiscretedummyvariableandacontinuouscountmeasure)positivelycorrelatestoearlyschoolleaving.Atruanthasa3.4percentagepointshigherriskofleavingschoolwithoutaqualification(DeWitte&Csillag,2012,p.549).Interviewshelpanswerassumptionsthatcommonlyareassociatedwithattendancerecord.Forexample,highertruancyratescanleadtonegativeacademicoutcomesforstudents.Becausethequalitativestudyisasimpleone,thequestionswillnotbeanalyzedextensively,rather,theywillbeexaminedtoidentifyunderlyingthemes.Thesethemeswillthenbecomparedtothemesfoundintheliteraturereviewtoseeifthereisauniversalthemeorconceptbeingappliedthatleadstosuccessfulacademicperformancebystudentsandgoodattendancerecords.Itisimportanttoallowstudentsandstafferstogivetheiropinionsaswellasenablediscussionofwhatcausedthepositiveornegativeopinion.Thiswillallowforeasieranalysisofresponses.Anotherstudyinterviewedyouthsandtheirexperiencesshowedtheyneededsupportfromtheirparentsandmoreengagementfromtheschooltomotivatethemtocometoschoolmoreandlearn.“Youths’experiencesandrecommendationsillustratethemultiplefactorsthatinfluenceschooltruancyandsuggestpotentialleveragepointsforreducingtruancy,includingmodificationstotheschoolenvironmenttoincreasestudentengagement;amoreeffectiveschoolresponsetoaddresstruancy”(Gase,DeFosset,Perry,&Kuo,2016,p.299).Motivationisanintegralaspectofreducingtruancyamongstudents.(WillkeepinthissectionbecauseIamintroducingtheconceptualframeworkdiscussedinliteraturereview.Thiswasaskedtobeexpandedinpreviouscorrection.)Animportanttheorythatwillbeexploredinthispaperistheincentivetheoryofmotivation.“…peoplearepulledtowardsbehaviorsthatofferpositiveincentivesandpushedawayfrombehaviorsassociatedwithnegativeincentives.Theincentivetheorysuggeststhatpeoplearemotivatedtodothingsbecauseofexternalrewards”(Rehman&Haider,2013,p.141).Ifstudentsareincentivizedtoattendclassbyreceivingareward,thismaybeacrucialpartmissinginschoolswithhightruancyratesandmayexplainthedownwardspiralofsomestudentswhentheyarepunishedseverelyforbeingabsent.DoctorsCharterSchoolhasnon-academicawardsthattheygiveouttostudentswhoarerespectfulandhavegoodattendancerecords.Thesecouldbeincentivesforstudentstocontinueattendingclass.Theschool’sattendanceprocedureisstrict,butallowsforevaluationofthereasonsbehindastudent’sabsence.Suchconsiderationforastudentallowsforroomforthestudenttoresolvehisorherproblemsandcontinuegoingtoschool.Oneruleinparticular,isthatifastudentmissesanxamountofdays,theywillhavethesameamountofdaystomakeuptheassignment.Althoughthismaybedifficulttoaccomplish,itdoesleavesomewiggleroomforstudents,thusincreasingtheirmotivationtocontinuefollowingtherulesoftheschool.AssumptionsThemainassumptionthatguidesthisstudyisthattruancypoliciesandproceduresarethecornerstoneforreductionintruancyrates.Otherassumptionsincludethenotionthathigherratesoftruancyleadtopooreracademicperformance.Whenstudentsfailtoattendclassvoluntarily,theyputthemselvesatgreaterriskofperformingpoorlyinschool.Thiscanhappenduetotheirinabilitytokeepupinschoolandlackofmotivationtocompleteassignments.Theymaybeunwillingtoattendschoolduetomentalhealthproblems,anunstablehomelife,orphysicalhealthconditions.Anotherassumptionisthatstudentslivinginpovertyandminoritystudentsmayhaveamoredifficulttimewithschoolduetoaturbulenthomelifeanddealingwithinstitutionalizedracism.Althoughthisisnotatopicthatwillbecoveredin-depthinthispaper,itisimportanttorecognizethedifficultiesthatcomefromlackofresourcesandpotentiallybeingaminority,andseehowthatcouldaffecttruancyrates.Thiscouldlendtocreationandimplementationofevenmoreeffectiveschoolpoliciesthatcanultimatelyreducetruancyratesandmaintainthemlowinthefuture.LimitationsThestudywillbelimitedtoonepubliccharterschool.theDoctorsChartersSchool.Thisisbecauseoftheneedtounderstandwhattheschooldoesandthencomparethatinformationtoothersuccessfulschools.Anotherlimitationisthenumberofpeopletointerviewforthestudy.Becausetheinterviewisqualitativeandin-person,notmanypeoplecanandwillbeavailabletoanswerquestions.ThestudyisalsolimitedtotheschoolswithintheUnitedStates.TheliteraturereviewwillonlyexaminehowAmericanschoolshandletruancyandpolicesthateitherdecreaseorincreasetruancyrates.Thefinallimitationisparents.Althoughparentalopinionmaybehelpful,itwouldbebettertoleavetheinterviewstostudentsandstafferswithparentsgivingpermissiontothestudenttospeak.Nootherlimitationsarenoted.ScopeoftheStudyThestudyisqualitative,andwilluseinterviewswithschoolstafftocollectdata.Interviewtranscriptswillbe-basedandaimstoanalyzedthetoidentifyunderlyingthemesfromrespondentsoftheDoctorsCharterSchool.Byaskingquestionsstafffromtheschool,thehopeistounderstandwhateffectivepoliciesareinplacethatallowsforbetterattendanceratesthanotherschoolsinthedistrict.Interestingly,theschoolalsofaresbetterregardingacademicscoresandhasahighgraduationrate.Iflocationplaysapart(itislocatedinasuburbanarea),thisshouldbeexploredviatheinterviewquestionstogainabetterunderstandingofallaspectsofeffectivepolicywithintheschool.Theliteraturereviewprovidesafoundation,theinterviewsprovidethedata.Asidefromthequalitativeinterviews,theliteraturereviewwillserveasacomparativeguidetonotonlybasesomeofthequestions,butalsocomparethedatagarneredfromtheinterviews.Ifothersuccessfulschoolshavesimilarpoliciesinplace,thiscouldserveasapotentialstandardthatcanappliednationallytohelpdecreasetruancyinallschoolsthroughoutthecountry.Theliteraturereviewwillalsoservetoprovideexamplesofpoliciesinschoolwithhightruancyratestoseewhatshouldnotbedone.Theresultswillalsobediscussedwithinthecontextofpotentialmodificationthatcanbemadetohelpimproveattendanceratesandacademicsuccessofstudentsevenfurther.Ultimately,itisimportanttoacknowledgewhatDoctorsCharterSchoolhastoofferandseewhetherthatcanserveasagaugeforotherschoolsinthedistrict,anymaybe,inthecountry.Althoughthequalitativestudyissmall,onlyincludingsixstudentsandfourstaffmembersfromtheschool,itmayprovidethekindofinsightthatcannotbegatheredelsewhere.Useofdatabasesavailabletohighlightnationwidetruancyratesmayalsobeused,againasacomparativetool.SignificanceThestudycanbeanimportantstepinlearningmoreabouthowretentionpoliciesinfluencedecisionmakinginschools.Thefindingsmayleadtothisschoolandothersstandardizingeffectiveprogramsandpolicies.PublicschoolsacrosstheUnitedStatesneedtoknowthattheycanhavetheknowledgetoimprovetheirstudentpopulationsacademicprogressandattendance.First,however,theyneedtoseetheinformationthatprovescertainpolicyimplementationsworkandareworththetime,money,andeffort.Similartoevidence-basedpracticeinnursing,staffneedtoseeevidenceofpoliciesthathavealreadybeenenabledandimplementedthathaveledtothesuccessofstudentsandtheimprovedratesofattendance.WhileithelpsseeingthestatisticsofasuccessfulschoollikeDoctorsCharterSchool,itisevenmoresignificantifschoolsseethestepsittooktoreachthatlevelofsuccess.Thenthatcollectedinformationcanbecomparedtootherschoolsastoidentifywhatcoreprinciplesandactionshavebeenusedtoachievesuchapositiveresult.Growthandpositiveoutcomescanonlycomefromtestedandapprovedpractices.Thisstudywilldissectsuchpoliciespracticesthroughasoundconceptualframeworkandthenseeifassumptionsandhypothesescanbeprovenordisproven.Researchersneedtocontinuetheirpursuitofinformationandanalysistoofferpotentialguidelinesanddirectionsforschoolsthatneedit.ThegrowingproblemoftruancyintheUnitedStatesrequiresathoughtfulandconsiderateassessmentofongoingissues.Theseissueswillcontinuetoremainprevalentunlessactionistaken.Actioncannotbetakenunlessthereissoundresearchandevidencebehindit.Lastly,studiesliketheonehereoffersananchorpointtoinvestigateotheraspectsofschoollife,schoolenvironment,andstudentbehavioralproblems.Ifstudentshaveproblemsduetostruggleswithsexuality,genderidentity,orevenpoliticalaffiliation,thiscouldalsobeinvestigatedinfuturestudies.Theresultscouldthenbeusedtospearheadchangesinpoliciesinthenearfuture,leadingtocontinueprogressiontowardsasafeandpositiveschoolenvironment.DefinitionofTermsThetermsutilizedinthisstudyaredetailedbelow.TruancyWhenastudentstaysawayfromschoolwithoutasufficientreason;canbealsolabeledasabsenteeism.Dayssuspendedmaybeincludedintruancyrates.CharterSchool(intheUnitedStates)apubliclyfundedindependentschoolestablishedbycommunitygroups,parents,orteachersunderthetermsofacharterwithnational/localauthority.ExpulsionMeaningpermanentwithdrawing/exclusion,whenastudentisbannedorremovedfromaschoolsystem/universityduetoconsistentviolationsofaninstitution'srules.However,itcanalsobeforasingleoffenseoffittingharshnessinextremecases.SuspensionRegardingschools,suspension(a.k.a.temporaryexclusion)isanobligatoryleavegiventoastudentasamethodofpenaltythatcanlastanywherefromasingledaytoaslongasseveralweeks,whereastudentcannotattendschoolorstepfootinsidetheschool(Kaufman&Kaufman,2013).StudentPortalServesasanonlinegatewaywherestudentscanaccesscurriculum,internetresourcesrelatedtothecurriculumandmayhavetheoptiontocommunicateelectronicallywithteachersand/orstudents.ConclusionInconclusion,truancyratesareagrowingprobleminUnitedStatesschools.DoctorsCharterSchoolisoneschoolthataimstoreducetruancyratesandhavedonesoaccordingtorecentstatistics.ByexploringDoctorsCharterSchool’sschoolpoliciesandotherschoolpoliciesthatincreaseordecreasetruancyratesinFloridathestudyhopestounderstandwhatmaycausetruancyinschoolsandwhatreducesit.Ifbetterandimprovedhandlingofstudentissuesisthesolutiontotruancy,itneedstobeexplored.Thenextsectionisaliteraturereview.TheliteraturereviewwillfocusonimportantpoliciesalreadyinplaceinotherschoolsandhowthesepoliciescouldbesimilarordifferenttoDoctorsCharterSchoolalongwiththenegativeeffectsofhightruancyratesandthecauseoftheseratesinschools.Thenextsectionallowsonetoseethroughrecentliterature,thesignificanceoftruancyandhowitconnectsschoolmeasureswithstudentbehavior.Someschoolstakepunitivemeasurestowardstruancy,otherstakenon-punitive,andstillmoretakeamixtureofboth.Whyaresuchmeasuresadopted?Theaimistounderstandthisandwhystudentsaretruant.Thereareseveralfactorsthatcanbeatplayfromenvironmenttomentalhealth,andsoforth.Theliteraturereviewwillbringintocontextmoreoftheseaspects.Withsomanyschoolsthroughoutthecountryexperiencinghightruancyrates,whatdoesDoctorsCharterSchooldothatenableshighattendanceamongitsstudentpopulation?Whatpolicieshastheschooladoptedtosupportapositiveenvironmentthatmotivatesstudentstoattendschoolandlearn?Chapter2LiteratureReviewIntroduction:AddressingSchoolTruancyHighschooltruancyisnottheonlythingbeingaddressedastheschoolinterviewedhaschildrenfrom6-12.Studenttruancyhasbecomeamajorissueschoolstrytotackle.Therefore,toimprovetruancytheneedarisestoresearchandcultivateworthwhilestrategiestoreducenegativebehaviorsthatleadtotruancy.However,thereisalsoaneedtounderstandwhystudentsaretruantinthefirstplace.Povertyandnegativeschoolenvironmentareissuesthathaveraisedconcernforthelikelihoodoftruancyinstudents.Thissectionhopestoilluminatetheissueofstudenttruancy.Itbecomesdifficulttoidentifythecostsofbenefitsofvariousmeasures.Thosethatfallintothepunitivedisciplineisnecessarybecausetraditionalistviewsbelieveadherencetorulesleadstopositiveoutcomes.Thoseinthecampofnonpunitivedisciplinedesiretodemonstratehowgivingstudents’optionscanleadtobetterresultsnotjustintruancyrates,butthepersonalgrowthofthestudent.Withallthestrategiesandmethodsavailable,itcanbedifficultforschoolleadstodeterminewhatmixtureofpunitiveandnonpunitivedisciplinewillwork.Thedesireistoshowthesuccessofprogramsand/orschoolsthathaveenabledareductionintruancyratesaswellaspoliciesineffectthatincreasetruancyratestodemonstratehowtoimprovestudenttruancy.PunitivePunitivemeasuresfortruancycanbeseenthroughtheintroductionofthird-partypolicinginschools.“Third-partypolicingisanapproachtocrimepreventionandcontrolinvolvingthepolicepartneringwithorganizationsorindividualstopreventorreducecrimeproblems”(Nitschke,Mazerolle,&Bennett,2014,p.5211).Relyingonavailablecriminal,regulatory,orcivillawsandrules(legallevers)thatallowthirdpartiestotakeaccountability,partially,forcontrolofcrime,itcreatesanenvironmentwhereapprehensionofproblemstudentsisfeasible.Thismayhelpschoolsdealwiththegrowingdelinquencyinstudents,butmayalsomakeiteasierforstudentstobecomepartofthecriminaljusticesystematanearlyage.Punitivemeasurescanalsobecostlier.Thisisbecausepunitivemeasureslikeexpulsionorsuspensioncanfurtherincreasethelikelihoodofstudentsbeingtruantandperformingpoorlyacademically(Shelton,2014).Studentsmustbeguidedtowardsapositiveoutcomeandthatmeansreducingthebeliefthatpunitivemeasureswillkeepstudentsfrombeingtruant.Althoughshort-termresultsmayindicatereduction,thelong-termeffectscouldbemorenegativeandlong-lasting.Sheltonmentionedthatstudentswhofacepunitivemeasuresmayhaveahigherchanceofcommittingcrimesversusthosewhofacednon-punitivemeasures.Whilesomeresearchsuggestspolice-interventionregardingtruancycanhelpstudentsinthatparentsaremoreawareofwhathappenstothem,therearestillmanyfactorstoconsiderinrelationtoefficacy.Forexample,police-interventionmayleadtohigherparentalawareness,butalsoincreasedpotentialfortruantstudentstoendupinthejuvenilecriminaljusticesystem(Mazerolle,Bennett,Antrobus,&Eggins,2017).Amixtureofbothpunitiveandnon-punitivemeasuresmaybemostbeneficialintacklingtheproblemoftruancy.Non-PunitivePunitivemeasuresfortruancyhavetheirplaceinschools.However,researchshowsnon-punitivemeasuresarealsousefulandofferachanceforstudentstoimproveandremovesomeofthestigmaattachedtopastmistakes.Successfulprotocolsintegrateflexibilityintostandardmethodstohelptheschool,family,andstudent.Suchprogramsunderstandindividualstudent’sneedsanddowhateverisessentialtoassistthefamilyandstudentinvolvedintruancy(Mallett,2015).OnestudyinAustraliaaimedtounderstandtruancyandtheeffectsoftruancytogenerateprogramsthatallowedforeffectivemeasuresatreducingtruancyratesamongstudents(Taylor,Gray,&Stanton,2016).Thisshowsthatwithproperresearch,non-punitiveoptionsarefeasible.However,theymustbedoneinconjunctionwithsignificantresearchthatallowsabetterunderstandingoftheneedsofstudentswhoparticipateintruancy.Theexpectationisthatnon-punitivemeasuresaremoreeffectivethanpunitivemeasures.However,ifthereisnosignificantdifference,non-punitivemeasuresmustbeassessedforefficacy.Haight,Chapman,Hendron,Loftis,&Kearney(2014),demonstratedhownon-punitivemeasureslikeatruancyprogrammaynotworkifakeyprocessisnotimplemented.Meaning,ifthereisnoskill-buildingaspecttotheprogramliketutoring,thechancefortruancytodecreasedeclines.StudentCharacteristicsTruancycanhavealastingimpactonthelifeofastudent.“Schooldropouthasbeenextensivelystudiedintheliteratureasacorrelateofnegativelifeoutcomes.Aprecursortoschooldropoutistruancy,theunexcusedorillegitimatestudentabsencefromschool”(Rocque,Jennings,Piquero,Ozkan,&Farrington,2016,p.592).Studentsmaybeabsentortruantduetoamultitudeofreasons.Researchersidentifiedthroughafewexaminedstudies,thatstudentswhoareoftenmoretruantthanothers,maybemoreinvolvedincrime.Suchinvolvementpointstothenegativecorrelationoftruancyandlaterlifeoutcomeslikedelinquencyandcrime.Theresearchersalsostatetruancycanleadtoproblemdrinking.“Resultsindicatethattruancyhaslong-lastingassociationswithnegativelifeoutcomes,especiallyfornon-violentcrimeandproblemdrinking”(Rocque,Jennings,Piquero,Ozkan,&Farrington,2016,p.592).Ifaddictiveorcriminalbehaviorleadstotruancyandtruancycanfurtherleadtoaddictiveorcriminalbehavior,itseemsacyclethatjustfeedsitselfwithnegativeoverallbehavior.Thisisimportanttoknowbecausestudentsexperiencingaddictionproblemsorbecominginvolvedindelinquentbehaviorcanreceivehelptonotonlykeepthemfromengaginginsuchriskyactionswhilealsopositivelycontributingtoreductionintruancyrates.Essentially,thenotionthatfortheretobeareductionintruancyrates,schoolsmusthelpstudentsdealwiththenegativebehaviorstheyareengagingin,outsideofschool.Thesenegativebehaviorscouldcomebecauseofnegativeexperiences.Frombullyingtopooracademicperformance,studentsoftenexperiencestressthatcouldbedetrimentaltotheiracademicsuccess.Birkett,Russell,&Corliss,(2014)observetherolesexual-orientationdisparitieshaveonstudentsinrelationtoacademicachievementandtruancy.Throughtheutilizationofpoolinformation,theyidentifiedbeingpartoftheLGBTgroupaffectedratesoftruancyandacademicperformance.“LGBT-identifiedyouthsreportedsignificantlyelevatedoddsoftruancyandlowgrades(oddsratios?=?1.6–3.2;allP?

Coping Through the Use of Informal Institutions during COVID-19 in South Africa, Nigeria, and SwazilandChapter 1: IntroductionThe global outbreak of COVID-19 raises many concerns regarding how individuals and communities who live in African countries, with fragile health systems, cope with the pandemic. During past pandemics, individuals and communities in Africa have relied on customary practices and traditions, also commonly referred to as informal institutions (Moore, 2020). Informal institutions have continued

Parenting Style Influence on Excess Alcohol Intake Among Jewish Youth Ross Master of Science, Mental Health Counseling, College, January, 2008 Clinical Psychology Anticipated; December, 2016 The health hazards that are associated with adolescent alcohol use are well documented, and there is growing recognition among policymakers and clinicians alike that more needs to be done to address this public health threat. The purpose of this study will be to examine the effects of different parenting styles