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The nature of this schedule "produces a high rate of responding, with a pause after the reinforcer is delivered" (Hockenbury, 2003, p. 219), and then another burst of responses.
With a variable-ratio schedule, responses follow a steady pattern, with few pauses after the reinforcer is delivered. Here, reinforcement follows an average number of responses that is varied between trials (Hockenbury, 2003, p. 219). A participant may need to respond 25 times in one trial to receive reinforcement, whereas the second trial will require 20 responses for the delivered reinforcer. While each trial is unpredictable, more trials bring the ratio of response to reinforcement to a predetermined average (Hockenbury, 2003, p. 219).
Interval schedules use time to determine the delivery of the reinforcer. With a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement comes after a fixed time interval elapses after the first response. Using this schedule produces a pattern of increased responses as time for the next reinforcer gets closer. Once the reinforcer is delivered, responses tend to drop off until the end of the fixed interval again draws near (Hockenbury, 2003, p. 219).
Lastly, on a variable-interval schedule, a reinforcer is delivered after a certain amount of time after the first response, yet this time is an average and varies from trial to trial. This schedule is unpredictable, yet more trials produce an average time interval. The pattern...
Since reinforcement is unpredictable due to the varied time intervals, the belief that the delivery of a reinforcer might occur produces a steady rate of responses (Hockenbury, 2003, p. 219).
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The DSM explicitly "strives to be atheoretical, using merely observationally referent terms. The hope with this is to make the manual as acceptable as possible to professionals with different theoretical orientations (Gilles-Thomas 1989, Lecture 2). Specific criteria and systematic descriptions are offered as guidance for making diagnoses. "Essential features, associated features, prevalence rates, sex ratios, family patterns, and differential diagnoses are listed" and it is noted when "alternative or
Psychology: Theories on Personality Freud and Jung: Differences on their Theories of Personality For many years, serious psychology students looking into explanations of personality, and scholars researching pivotal theories of personality, tended to associate Freud and Jung as quasi-brothers in theory; and Freud and Jung were close at one time. But as years passed, according to an article in the Journal of Analytical Psychology (Charet, 2000) -- and based on a critical
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