Analytic Epidemiology Designs:
In 2011, the United States Food and Drug Administration reported a shortage of vital chemotherapy drugs, which in turn interfered with clinical trials and contributed to probable challenges in evaluating data from those studies. According to the National Institutes of Health, considerable research trials were hindered by shortages of drugs for treatment of infectious diseases and cancer (Allen, 2011). One of the most important aspects of the advancement of disease prevention and treatment is experimental research that incorporates clinical trials. After the establishment of a risk factor, an intervention is usually tested through experimental research methods and designs. In this case, the most important thing is to examine whether the drug essentially prevents or ameliorates symptoms. Experimental research plays a crucial role in analytic epidemiology to an extent it's considered as the "gold standard" of the process.
Epidemiological Context of HIV / AIDS:
Epidemiological study for HIV / AIDS has…...
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References:
Allen, J. (2011, September 23). U.S. Drug Shortage Could Threaten U.S. Health System. ABC
Sampling Designs and Evaluability Assessments
Identify and discuss 2 types sampling designs, their benefits and limitations
In essence, non-probability sampling and probability sampling are the only two types of sampling designs.
Non-probability sampling:
A researcher selects a small proportion of the units to represent the whole. The selection is deliberate without any defined procedure. For example, if the objective of the researcher is to study the economic conditions of a particular population residing in a defined area. The researcher deliberately chooses a few towns or cities to represent the entire area under study (Levy & Lemeshow, 2008). Based on the objectives and specificity of the study, the following are some of the sampling techniques under the non-probability sampling.
Purposive or Judgmental Sample
In purposive or judgmental sampling, the researcher selects the sample based on the familiarity of the population and the objectives of the study. The researcher prefers using a purposive sample because the sample under…...
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References
Levy, P.S., & Lemeshow, S. (2008). Sampling of populations: Methods and applications. New York: Wiley & Sons.
Ridgeway, G. (2006), "Assessing the Effect of Race Bias in Post -- Traffic Stop Outcomes Using
Propensity Scores," Journal of Quantitative Criminology, to appear.
Schaeffer, R.L., Mendenhall, W., & Ott, L. (2006). Elementary survey sampling. Belmont, CA:
Validity in Quantitative esearch Designs
Validity Quantitative esearch Designs Validity research refers extent researchers confident effect identify research fact causal relationships. If low validity a study, means research design flawed results .
Threats to internal validity in quasi-experimental designs
Quasi-experimental studies have several issues that lead to lack of internal validity of the study. These occur as a result of the experimental conditions not being highly controlled or randomized. This leads to intervention and control groups being nonequivalent leading to issues with study design. This is what is evidenced in the study conducted by Yuan et al. (2009)
where five units assigned a number of 8 to 10 voluntary participants to either the experimental or control groups. There is thought to be a risk of bias in assigning participants to the two groups as a result of this. This comes from the random error that occurs on measurements across the two different groups. This…...
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References
Embretson, S.E. (2007). Construct Validity: A Universal Validity System or Just Another Test Evaluation Procedure? Educational Researcher, 36(8), 449-455. doi: 10.2307/4621099
88). To make the non-experimental anthropological study of freshman in a dorm room experimental, a study could be constructed of multiple variable factors (such as high school grades, number of roommates, major, gender) to determine what variables were present in students with higher grades. By submitting questionnaire to students in the dorm room and determining which variables, when present, seemed to correlate with higher grades and were potential 'causal' factors in higher grades, the researchers could then call their endeavor an experimental study. (Note that in this experiment there would be no formal control group, instead seeing what clusters of variables were present in high-achieving students would be the focus).
In general, the great advantage of experiments over other study designs is that, with an experimental design, you can more easily demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships. Doing a simple observational case study of students on a dorm hall would expose the researcher to…...
There is also the perpetual problem with qualitative research: namely because it is a single sample size, the study might only be representative of one particular population. However, some qualitative researchers argue that any type of research is subjective: they believe that even the approach of quantitative research disguises idiosyncratic aspects of reality and even the most rigorously empirical construct says more about a researcher's biases than an external reality. The many subjective beliefs about post-tenure review itself within a single department are manifest in the varied responses of faculty members as to the impact of such reviews in Wood & Johnson's study (2005, p. 425). Thus, it may actually be more valuable to study one department, and let readers decide for themselves if the process is appropriate for their educational environment.
Selecting several representative departments (one at a small liberal arts school, one at a large university and selecting departments…...
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References
Dick. (2006). Action research literature 2004-2006.
Donato. (2003). Action research.
Eysenck. (2004). Psychology: An international perspective
It would seem like bias would be eliminated that way, but this is not the case. There can be associations found on both group and individual levels, and that can be misleading (Goodman, uehler, & Koplan, 1990). A researcher who notices this kind of association can be led to believe that it is something taking place on a group level, where it should actually be attributed to the people in the group on an individual level. It is called ecological bias when this happens, but these studies still have their place. They are less expensive than many other types of studies, and they are also quicker, as they can often be conducted with information that has already been published by other researchers or with public records information (Yehuda & McFarlane, 1995).
The cross sectional study is designed to gather information from a point in time, and from a specific population.…...
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Bibliography
Goodman, R.A, Buehler, J.W. & Koplan, J.P. (1990). The epidemiological field investigation: science and judgment in public health practice. American Journal of Epidemiology 132: 9-16.
Neutra, R.R. (1990). Counterpoint from a cluster buster. American Journal of Epidemiology 132: 1-8.
Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A.C. (1995). Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1705-1713.
Companies frequently fall in love with the data-rich results and think that the results are projectable. This supposition is wrong. Projectabilty is not possible, as the analysis is slanted and deals with a small size. Another general misapprehension is the belief that qualitative research will always give perfect deductions. Actually, the results will not give companies with perfect deductions, but only with adequate information to set up a firm basis for decision-making. Hence, if one wants strength in numbers, we can select quantitative research; when size is not the main factor, qualitative research is one's best choice. (Fitzgerald, 2000)
The choice of whether to select a quantitative or a qualitative design is a theoretical one. It must be kept in mind that these are two different viewpoints, which are not essentially polar opposites, though they seem to be opposites. Actually, basics of both methods can be used together in mixed-methods…...
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References
Fitzgerald, Albert. (May, 2000) "Quantitative vs Qualitative" San Diego Daily Transcript.
True" Experiments vs. Quasi-Experimental Designs
What qualities of the quasi-experimental design are evident in this study?
This study was specifically designed to test the efficacy of a new program designed to improve police responses to cases involving domestic violence. Through the Second esponders Program, trained social workers would follow police after domestic violence-related calls and provide victims with counseling and information about social support services if the victims wished to leave their abusive partners. To evaluate the program, "field researchers contacted eligible subjects and attempted to interview them within 1 week of the domestic violence incident to which police were called; the second interview took place 6 months later" (Lane et al. 2004: 4).
Because the city of ichmond implemented the Second esponders Program in only two of its four police precincts, the researchers chose to use as a control group the precincts where the program was not implemented. The experimental group…...
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References
Lane, E. (et al. 2004). The Second Responders Program: A coordinated police and social service response to domestic violence. Retrieved from:
Criminal Justice
There are a large number of study designs that can be used to better understand issues in social sciences, including criminal justice (USC, 2014). Before a study design can be applied to a particular phenomenon or problem, however, they must be understood in terms of the strengths and weaknesses. In addition, most study designs will not be appropriate for a given situation and research goal. To better understand the strengths and weaknesses of particular study designs and appropriate applications this essay will discuss five that would be useful in criminal justice research. Two of these methods will then be used to explore how they could be used to study a professional practice issue in criminal justice.
Study Designs
Exploratory Study Design
Exploratory research is used when little is understood about a particular phenomenon and there is the possibility of future research using more quantitative methods (USC, 2014). The goals are primarily to…...
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References
Goldstein, J. (2014, March 4). Street stops still a 'basic tool,' Bratton says. New York Times, p. A25.
This makes the use of telephone-based research inherently less valuable. In order to properly test the effectiveness of the word/image combinations, the audience must see mock-ups of the cards. The greeting card industry tends not to have early-adopters, so the research should focus on a mainstream audience.
This leaves the option of either an in-person focus group or an online focus group. The markets for paper cards and online cards differ in terms of their demographics, so the best way to measure the effectiveness of paper cards is to use in-person focus groups. The targets can be drawn from any city with a large Hispanic population. Given significant differences in Hispanic populations in the two largest markets of Los Angeles and Miami it is important that groups in those two markets be tested at the minimum. An additional technique that should be incorporated is that of the group interview in…...
categories of research designs: true experiment, factorial, quasi-experiment, and ex post facto. Under each broad category, there are a number of more specific research designs. For instance, a co-relational design in which the researcher aims to determine the relationship between two or more variables falls under the category of ex post facto designs. Your research design represents the structure of your study. In other words, it reflects the number and type of variables you are studying and the number and type of groups you are using. esearch methods are used to carry out research designs. esearch methods fall under two broad categories: quantitative (e.g., survey, experiment) and qualitative (e.g., case study, grounded theory, ethnography, etc.).
Your problem statement and research questions will help determine your research design, and your research design will help determine your research method.
Using the feedback your instructor gave you following your initial premise in Week 1…...
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References
Baxter, P. & Jack, S. (2008, December). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report Volume, 13, (4), 544-559Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter.pdf
Cohen, L, Manion, L., and Morrrison, K. (Eds.). (2011). Nonexperimental research designs: correlational design, ex post facto design, naturalistic observation, and qualitative research. (Chapter 15.) In Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrrison, Eds., Research Measures in Education (7th ed.). New York, NY: Rutledge Publishing.
Causation cannot be inferred from non-experimental designs, only relationships. This type of design allows researchers to observe how certain factors co-exist in a natural environment, without any experimental intervention. This allows researchers a first step in testing hypotheses and theories as to what causes a certain phenomenon.
When a study is lacking in internal validity, it means that confounding variables within the study were not successfully eliminated. In other words, certain factors are present in the study that puts into question whether or not the outcomes being measured or observed are really due to the manipulated variable or the condition under study. When a study is lacking in external validity, the findings of the study can not be readily generalized to the population at large. This may be due to a lack of randomization in the sample used for the study. Internal and external validity are inextricably intertwined, and affect…...
Product/Brand Usage/Purchase questions: How frequent does he/she use such products? What brands are in the home now? How old are these products / how often are kitchen appliances purchased? What attributes are preferred in kitchen appliances? Is the person satisfied with their kitchen appliances?
Lifestyle Questions: How often does the person cook at home? his/her spouse? How sophisticated is the cooking? What types of foods are cooked? Questions can also be asked that are product specific (i.e. how often do you use your blender for smoothies; hand blender for soups, etc.). Ask about styling in general -- the importance of styling in furniture and home decor. Inquire what the customer thinks about the styling on the products that they are presented with. A control group could be asked blindly, with another group informed that the styles are European, to see…...
Non-experimental research designs is a type of study that is essentially uncontrolled. The research has little to no ability to influence the variables at work, and therefore the research cannot be considered a controlled experiment. There are several types of non-experimental research designs, including correlational, descriptive and historical.
Different Types of Non-Experimental Research
The different types of non-experimental research are bound by the fact that in all cases, the researcher has no ability to control the variables. This contrasts with research where the researcher does control the variables in order to test the influence of one or more variables on the outcomes. Non-experimental research also implies that there are a wider range of outcomes than might be tested for in experimental research, where there is typically a narrow null hypothesis and any results not confirming that will result in a rejection of the null hypothesis.
But the different types of non-experimental research are…...
Posters Designs
Art posters have been particularly important during wartime, as they were responsible for influencing the masses to get actively engaged in joining the war. James Montgomery Flagg's "I Want You for the U.S. Army" (1916) poster is probably one of the most recognized artworks meant to have normal citizens identify with individuals on the front. Similarly, J. Howard Miller's 1942 poster "We Can Do It!" had the purpose of persuading Americans to assist war efforts any way that they could. Whereas Flagg's poster was directly implying that it was mandatory for Americans to join the army, Miller's seems to be addressing a larger public -- one that can contribute to the war through a diverse set of activities.
"I Want You for the U.S. Army" and "We Can Do It" were practically meant to sell the war to simple Americans, considering that they were most likely impressed with the…...
The social sciences refer to any academic discipline that deals with human behavior. The fields that generally fall under this rubric include economics, anthropology, psychology, sociology, political science, historiography, as well as certain types of culture-specific studies. Mixed method research refers to a research methodology that mixes traditional quantitative and qualitative research designs and discussing both types of evidence or data while considering the takeaways or conclusions of the research.
Some topics for mixed method research in social sciences are:
Does the inclusion of minority police officers in a police force reduce the incidence of police brutality....
Looking at how cars were invented and reality quickly became the go-to transportation method for much of the world is fascinating. While the automobile was invented in Germany and France, Henry Ford, who mastered automation and the mass production of cars, probably deserves much of the credit for the automobile’s early successes. In fact, Ford’s focuses on wages and affordability probably deserve credit for the rise of the American middle class, suggesting that the history of the automobile and the history of the middle class are inextricably intertwined.
Schmidt’s study on the effect of humor on memory is well-known, not only for its results, but also for its simple study design. The study, or actually the series of studies, suggested that humor increased attention and rehearsal of material, improving overall material of humorous material versus non-humorous material. The study designs were simple comparative studies that directly compared humorous and non-humorous materials. However, there is a problem with those studies. While there are well-known health benefits of humor and laughing, humor is subjective. That subjectivity can make it difficult to design a....
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