19th Century British Literature

¶ … medieval romance has inspired literature for generations. The magic of the Arthurian romance can be traced to Celtic origins, which adds to it appeal when we look at it through the prism of post-medieval literature. The revival of the medieval romance can be viewed as an opposition against modern and intellectual movement that became vogue in modern Europe. These romances often emphasized the human emotions rather than the human intellect and a return to more classical traditions. Poets and writers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries did not want to feel the oppression from the constraints of their time. Instead, they looked beyond the intellectual to a more mystical and emotional realm. They wanted to achieve another level in their writing -- one that allowed them to stretch their imaginations and their knowledge. The medieval aspects that we find in literature from this era accentuates a different type of thinking and writing that desired to be different yet familiar. John Keats and Alfred Tennyson are two poets that captured the essence of the medieval in their work, returning to a time that was simpler but just as exotic. Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin also refer to medieval aspects of society to enhance and emphasize their messages about society. These writers build on themes that are familiar to us only to expand on them. Their references allow us to make connections that might otherwise be lost in the barrage of descriptions.

John Keats and Alfred Tennyson are two poets that delved into the medieval to create worlds that recalled familiar moods, places, and names but also had a new quality that was new and fresh. Kerry McSweeney notes that the plots of these poems "involve a passage from one state of being to another" (McSweeney). In addition to having an "fantastic premise or supra-realistic appurtenances that combine with pronounced metrical and stylistic features to create a spell-like, magical atmosphere and to charge objects, actions, and binary oppositions with symbolic suggestiveness" (McSweeney). McSweeney observes that we are teased when we read these poems and "prompted, or propelled into interpretive considerations that are not the after-product of critical analysis but essential aspects of the experience of the poem" (McSweeney). Poems that illustrate this effect are Keats' "La Belle Dame sans Merci," "The Eve of St. Agnes," "Idylls of the King," "The Lady of Shalott," Past and Present, and The Stones of Venice are pieces of literature in which the past dances with the present and manages to open new worlds with each step.

In John Keats' poem, "La Belle Dame sans Merci," we see this type of return to the medieval with the knight and his mysterious vision. It is safe to assume that the meadows in which the knight finds himself are imaginary. The first few lines of the poem instantly create an air of mystery with its medieval references. This poem is also unique in that it is strange and yet wildly romantic. It is written in such a way that we cannot begin to analyze it but we try because it is so enchanting. The first lines awaken our curiosity because we are pulled into a medieval and supernatural world. When the narrator asks, "O what can ail thee, knight at arms" (Keats La Belle Dame sans Merci 1), we are hooked into discovering the mystery of this beautiful woman. The knight, they mystical lady, the mythological feel are fantastical as McSweeney mentions. The images all evoke questions and stir our imagination. The poet adds to this effect by never clearly answering the questions we have. Instead, he plays on them and lets us draw our own conclusions about who the man, the lady, and the meadow. This is a successful technique in that it allows us to make the story our own.

Keats' "The Eve of St. Agnes," begins in the same mysterious and medieval tone, with a chill in the air and the dark mood of an abandoned chapel when we read of a "bitter chill" (Keats The Eve of St. Agnes 1) and "frozen grass" (3). The tombs are adorned with "sculptur'd dead, on each side, seem to freeze, / Emprison'd in black, purgatorial rails" (14-5). The Beadsman sees these knights and ladies "praying in dumb orat'ries" (17). Here we see how Keats is evoking the mood and feel of medieval romance with the chapel and the knights and ladies frozen in time with prayers on their lips. The poem is also filled sensual imagery, emphasizing the beauty of love. We find within the lines a sense of the poet attempting to keep this type of love alive. When he writes, "St. Agnes! Ah! It is St. Agnes' Eve -- /Yet men will murder upon holy days:" (118-9), we understand his position of the frailty of the human condition. However, this notion is not overcome within the context of the poem. Rather, it serves to heighten the lovers' experience, which in turn serves a s tribute to the medieval romances of days gone by.

Jason Bate notes that the characters in the poem are like the poem's "seduction" (Bate 442) itself in that they are "either elevated or else protectively muffled as one haunting stanza" (442). Bate also notes that "The Eve of St. Agnes" contains the "distinguishing quality" (442) of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet in the "ebb and flow of emerging contrasts and partial resolutions, such as the advanced age and frailty of the two minor characters and the youth of the lovers; the temporary warmth and the all-enveloping cold; music and silence, the interplay of the religious and the erotic" (442). "The apex is reached when the central episode builds on Keats' familiar theme of dreaming and waking" (Bate 442). As with "La Belle Dame sans Merci," the poet is weaving together the medieval ideas of the past with supernatural aspects, all which seem fantastical, at the very least.

Woodring maintains that Keats weaves a "pattern of enchantment" (Woodring) into his "vivid tapestry" (Woodring) with the mention of Christian symbols, magicians, elves, and Porphyro and Merlin's rites. Madeline, too, is "trapped in the pagan conversion of Agnus Dei into Agnes Dies" (Woodring). In Woodring's estimation, the revelry that "The Eve of St. Agnes" evokes is "background to a contrived actuality that encloses one dream within another" (Woodring). The characters are draped with a certain type of medieval atmosphere that lends to the poem's mystery. For example, we read that Porphyro has come across the moors and stands "beside the portal doors,/Buttress'd from moonlight" (Keats The Eve of St. Agnes 76-7). Later, he envisions Madeline beguiled by fairies and his heart "revives" (226) as he gazes at her, "like a mermaid in sea-weed" (231). Even the storm is not a storm, for Porphyro declares it "an elfin-storm from faery land" (343) as it will permits the lover freedom from the "bloated wassaillers" (346). Here we see how the poet blends his vision of love with an ancient idea. Woodring notes that "Debate among scholars over Keats's sources for the poem may reflect a complexity in his own sense of poetic ancestry and influenced creativity" (Woodring). The Beadsman is the one character that moves "both with and against the 'coloring' and 'drapery' that Keats felt to be the principal merit of the poem" (Bate 442). He also observes that we are reminded of Shakespeare's phrases "death's eternal cold" when he walks down the freezing chapel past the "sculpter'd dead" (Keats The Eve of St. Agnes 15). Here we see how the poet is pulling from many different areas to create the mood he wants to convey.

Bate asserts that "The Eve of St. Agnes" reveals the predominant aspect of much Romantic poetry, which is a "dream -- like innocence -- that cannot be lived in the world without being violated; and yet, whatever is lost, actual happiness is impossible without an awakening from dream to reality" (Bate 446). In this poem, we find a love that goes beyond the physical in that it is a union of two spirits. The poet paints a lovely portrait of the lovers. For instance, we are told that Madeline's bed is "blanched linen, smooth and lavender." We are also told that she "lay/until the poppied warmth of sleep oppressed/her soothed limbs, and soul fatigued away" (Keats The Eve of St. Agnes 237). Here the poet depicts a pleasing thought associated with Madeline's sleep. As the poets turns the dream into a reality, he continues to work with the magical qualities connected with medieval romances. The imagery he employs helps us see this kind of lover. For instance, the poet writes, "Into her dream he melted, as the rose/Blendeth its odour with the violet/Solution sweet" (320). The lovers' union is also crafted in such a way that it is conveyed as mystical, magical, and beautiful. For example, we read about the rare combination of the rose and violet fragrances. The lovers manage to flee the wrath of the dragons, spears, and the raging wind and live a life happily ever after together. The various images of beauty the poet paints about love and its exhilarating effect make "The Eve of St. Agnes" a wonderful combination of medieval and romantic elements. Here we see how the poet has moved away from moralizing in his poetry and instead settled on rich details and idealized characters.

Another poet that brought the medieval past alive in his poetry was Alfred Tennyson. His poetry often revives old ideas and phrases within new contexts. This kind of poetry can be seen as old notions with a new spin. "Idylls of the King" and "The Lady of Shallot" demonstrate his skill in this area. The poem, "Idylls of the King" illustrates the poet's ability to capture and renew older legends and myths with a flavor all his own. Abrams notes that Tennyson realized that the Arthurian story had "epic potential and selected it for his lifework as 'the greatest of all poetical subjects'" (Tennyson qtd. In Abrams 11484). Mallory's Morte Darthur was The primary source for "Idylls of the King," which has the same appeal but, in Abrams opinion, the "overall design of the whole poem is more ambitious and impressive" (1184). The poem represent a rise and fall, which indicates a cycle in which a civilization must confront the "possibilities of a renewal in the future" (1184). Tennyson adds to Malory's tale by adding more magical qualities and the motivation of the women to spur on the knight's behavior. We see the medieval aspects of courage, loyalty, and Christianity in this poem. Catherine Phillips contends that the poet "knew an Italian version of the story of Elaine, which he used for 'The Lady of Shalott' and, traveling extensively in Wales, he collected local fables" (Phillips). As he became more familiar with his material, "he came increasingly to introduce his own emphasis and even to invent incidents" (Phillips). These invented incidents are exactly what McSweeney is referring to when he mentions that the poet teases us and prompts us to not only think about the poem and its language but also what else the poet might have had in mind. We stretch our imaginations when we read them and their mystery possibly allows us to find a new meaning.

The spirit of the Arthurian legend is revived with "The Idylls of the King." The primitive, Celtic origins emerge and form a complex world of medieval chivalry filled with symbolism. No doubt the world is a medieval one that includes the damsel in distress and a knight in shining armor. However, we also have new elements that are uniquely Tennyson. Arthur is described as asking that will "follow Christ" (Tennyson Idylls of the King I.499). The man is depicted with all his glory when he says, "Behold, for these have sworn/To wage my wars, and worship me their king" (I.506-7). Here we see the medieval qualities merged with the Christian aspects, both which prove to be important to the poet. He is able to create a world with these elements, which are as McSweeney described as fantastical and curious. In no way, do we feel as though we are stuck in the stale past when reading this work.

Tennyson also illustrates his ability to work the past with new ideas of the present in "The Lady of Shalott," which is based upon a myth that works with the poet's imagination. The lovely lady, the tower, Camelot, and Lancelot all bring forth images from the forgotten past. The lady clearly comes from Arthurian legend but her tale is also influenced by an Italian romance, as noted earlier. The poem is rich with details that remind us of the medieval world and its traditions. There is also an air of mystery and a dream-like state that we find with Keats' "La belle dame sans Merci." The poet depicts a lady that lives an isolated life, cursed as the Lady of Shalott. Her curse is weaving "night and day/A magic web with colors gay" (Tennyson Lady of Shalott 37-8). Her curse also includes not being able to look down upon Camelot. She is trapped within the tower walls, and can only look to the outside through a mirror "clear/That hangs before her all the year" (48-9). This is the only way she can see the "highway near/Winding down to Camelot" (49-50). While the window and the mirror are meant to alleviate her sense of isolation, they only heighten it. Many believe that her isolation can be seen as its own form of beauty and loveliness, but her isolation proves to be more than she can bear.

Lancelot is a vision from the medieval world that changes the lady's perspective and life forever. His presence illustrates a contrast between worlds -- namely the lady's world of shadows and light and the real world that she sees below. He is a symbol of the passion that she is forbidden to feel. The poet brings Lancelot into clear focus when he is described with a "blazoned baldric slung/A mighty silver bugle hug,/And as he rode his armor rung" (87-9). In addition, "Thick-jewelled shone the saddle-leather,/The helmet and the helmet-feather/Burned like one burning flame together" (92-4). Here we can see how the knight is a symbol of the bright world of Camelot that exists beyond the lady's tower. The poet prevents an image that is radiant and almost blinding to look upon, which seems to produce a hypnotic and mystical quality about him. In addition to this, he also sings "Tirra lirra" (107), which gives us a sense of his dynamic personality and endless energy. His pull is too great for her and she looks upon him.

At this point in the poem, the mood and tone change. The mystical dream-like state is broken and now the lady enters the world, which is not only beautiful but deadly as well. She has taken hold of her mortality with her choice and while embracing love, she embraces death. The independent move to set out on the river is the lady's progress toward life and this cannot be done without moving toward death. She accepts her choice, singing "her last song" (143). Instead of working on a piece of art, she becomes one. What we learn from her is that we all need to be involved with the world somehow and that our art can sometimes simply be the act of human touch.

Prose writers also used elements of the medieval past to express their thoughts and desires and make comments on society. Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin are two writers that pull from the past to make very definite points about the present. In Carlyle's "Past and Present," Smith states, "what must strike every one is, the manifest partiality Mr. Carlyle shows to the past, and the unfair preference he gives it over the present" (Smith). Henry Williams agrees with Smith, adding that Carlyle uses "myth to point the idea of a chapter or a succession of chapters. Thus Midas and The Sphinx are chapter captions; in each case there is constructed an elaborate application to England" (Williams). An example of how Carlyle called attention to his concerns can be seen in "Democracy," where he discusses class distinction. He writes:

It is not to die . . . that makes a man wretched . . . But it is to live miserable we know why; to work sore and yet gain nothing; to be heartworn, weary, yet isolated, unrelated, girt-in with a cold universe Laissez-faire: it is to die slowly all our life long, imprisoned in a deaf, dead Infinite Injustice . . . this is and remains for ever intolerable to all men whom God has made. (Carlyle 1003)

Carlyle defends the weaker in society by referring to Gurth from Scott's Ivanhoe. The man is "born thrall of Cedric the Saxon" (1004) and "seems happy" (1004). Williams notes that Carlyle's piece depicts the " illusion of a materialistic present is a sense of superiority to the past" (Williams). He also states that "Carlyle tried to show, as did Ruskin later, that in some respects the present was worse than the past" (Williams). In many instances, we need only to look around us to discover that this assertion is true. Carlyle uses his imagination like Keats and Tennyson did -- to build upon an idea and unite it with something which with we were already familiar. This technique proves to be successful because it allows us to connect with something while the author makes his point.

In John Ruskin's The Stones of Venice, we see how the writer blends the past with the present to makes his points. His work is elaborate with detail that allows him to focus on each aspect of society. In the first section of his work, he studies the architecture of the past. He writes that he finds in Venice, "the vitality of religion in private life, and its eadness in public policy. Amidst the enthusiasm, chivalry, or fanaticism of the other states of Europe, Venice stands, from first to last, like a masked statue; her coldness impenetrable, her exertion only roused by the touch of a secret spring" (Ruskin). At the end of this section, he writes, "The heart of Venice was in her wars, not in her worship" (Ruskin). Ruskin concludes this section with a warning to the people and churches that art has a place but that it should not be worshiped.