In-depth analysis of Alfred Adler's personality theory

Adler

In-depth research regarding a personality theory and personality theorist (Alfred Adler)

The Personality Theory of Alfred Adler

The Personality Theory of Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler (1870 -- 1937) has been described as one of the founders of modern personality theory and psychotherapy (Hoffman, 1996, p. xviii). He was an Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist and studied at the University of Vienna (Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia). He was also an innovator in that his theory of personality and personality development was very different in many respects to the dominant Freudian model of human developmental psychology.

The range of his influence on psychology and many related disciplines is extensive. As one commentator notes; " Not only did he exert a tremendous influence on the growth of such allied fields as child guidance and social work, but his ideas have also had considerable impact on wider Western culture…" (Hoffman, 1996, p. xviii).

Central to his theory of personality and individual development was the stress on inferiority, as opposed to the Freudian sexual drive, as a cardinal motivational force in human development and psychopathology. The following discussion will attempt to provide an in-depth overview and analysis of his theory of personality, as well as providing insight into the significance of his theories.

Overview: Adler's Theory of Personality

A first and very general point that should be made about Adler's theory is that it takes into account and focuses on the social nature of humanity. As Hoffman ( 1996) states, Adler's theories are based on the recognition that "…we all have an inborn capacity for "social feeling" -- companionship, camaraderie, friendship, community, and love -- and that we are most fulfilled when this quality is vibrant within us…" (Hoffman, 1996, p. xviii). In this sense Adler's theories start from the foundational thesis that, …it is not our sexual drive that is paramount, but our early sense of helplessness and inferiority. What determines our life's course is not primarily how we handle our sexual feelings, but rather how we express our innate striving for mastery, competence, and power" (Hoffman, 1996, p. xviii).

The above quotation sets the tone for an understanding of the various elements of his theory of personality. Adler's view was that both conscious and subconscious feelings of inferiority are the basic cause of psychopathological behavior.

An important insight that adds to our understanding of the generals tenor and underlying impetus of Adler's theory is his thesis that personality development is based on the overcoming of inferiority. As he states:

There is no doubt that all phenomena in the psychic life of a child tend towards overcoming his inferior position; and consequently the views of those who believe in the causative influence of heredity on the one hand, or environment on the other, are, as complete explanations of personality, made untenable by the this assumption of this creative power of the child. ( Adler, 1964, p. 87)

In other words, to ignore this creative drive away from a sense of inferiority and to reduce the explanation of personality to environment and heredity is, in Adler's view, not sufficient to explain human development.

Related to this central insight is the fact that Adler was of the opinion that, "… personality is shaped by the child's relationship with his/her parents and by our consciously chosen life goals, rather than by instincts" (Ewen, 1998, p. 1). In other words, personal growth and individual development is seen as a dynamic process. Unlike Jung, Adler he did not believe in the primacy of the unconscious in understanding personality and personality development. This view suggests the primary importance of societal and family influences in the creation and development of personality. This view also led to cognitive, social-cognitive theories, and humanistic theories of personality. A primary focus in the last few decades has been on the way that personality is influenced by a combination of both psychological and socials pressures and forces.

Put more succinctly, Adler's theoretical trajectory can be described as an "… holistic, phenomenological, ideological, field-theoretical, and socially-oriented approach to psychology and related fields" (Watts and Critelli, 1997, p.147). Furthermore, Adler's approach emphasizes the uniqueness and creative aspects of the individual; as well as a concept of the human psyche as "…an open dynamic system of motivation & #8230;striving for a subjectively conceived goal of success… and an innate potentiality for social life "(Watts and Critelli, 1997, p. 147). His theory is also seen as operating"…under the assumption that all behavior is purposeful and goal directed" (Watts and Critelli, 1997, p. 147).

Central Aspects Adler's Theory of Development

Adler's theory of personality can be summarized under the following headings; social interest; social determinism; goal-directed behavior; subjectively interpreted perception and holism.

Social interest refers to the innate drive to be part of the group and to be accepted. Dunn ( 1971) states that, "In each person from birth is an innate urge to move towards the group, from an inferior or a superior position. To become a person, to have worth and to earn respect" (Dunn, 1971, p. 7). Dunn also refers to the link between social interest in others and growth motivation in Adlerian psychology. Therefore, Adler associated high social interest with desirable personality traits and low social interest with undesirable traits (Dunn, 1971, p. 7).

It is also important to point out that profound depth of meaning that Adler associated with social feeling and social interest. Social feeling was much more than "mere sociability" and was in fact a "…profound experience of togetherness, an intimate connection of man with men extending across the largest reaches of history…" Goldwert, 1984. P.272). This means that the concept of social interest is a complex and extensive psychological and phenomenological concept in Adler's oeuvre. In fact social interest can be a measurement or normative ideal in Adler's theory of personality.

As he states in Superiority and Social Interest (1964)

….Our criterion for appraising a specific variant, whether a given individual or group, is always the direction towards the ascending development and welfare of mankind. In other words, it is the degree and kind of social interest necessary to arrive at this goal of general welfare and upward development (Adler, 1964, pp. 24-25).

Self-determinism is also an important facet in Adler's overall theory. This is the response to the world that transcends environment and hereditary factors and refers to the potential in each individual towards personal freedom and expression. "Man is indeterminate, capable of infinite development, not limited by a fixed intelligence or any notion of predetermined development" (Dunn, 1971, p. 7).

As Watts and Critelli (997) remark;

The central human directionality is toward competence or self-mastery, what Adler called "striving for superiority." This is the individual's creative and compensatory answer to the normal and universal childhood feelings of insignificance and disempowerment, and the concomitant beliefs that one is less than what one should be, i.e., "feelings of inferiority. (Watts and Critelli, 1997. P. 148 )

In other words, Adler emphasized the human need to move from negative self-perception to the positive. The normal and healthy individual therefore, from an Adlerian perspective, is one who "… follows the goal of social interest or community feeling; maladjustment is the consequence of pursuing narcissistic self-interest" (Watts & Critelli, 1997)

A third element that is significant is the notion of goal directed or purposive behavior. Human action, in terms of the Adlerian theory, is directed towards and motivated by certain self-chosen goals. This is as very diffident view of behavior when compared to the view that action is a result of drives or stimuli (Dunn, 1971, p. 7). This is a particularly important point that relates Adler's views to modern humanism.

In essence, the above aspects point to the need in human beings to "find their place in the world" (Lewis and Osborn, 2004, p1). This refers to the "force" within the human personality to move from the negative to the positive, from inferiority to superiority. It is also important to note that this model of human nature and personality provides a theoretical framework for understanding the healthy as well as maladjusted personality. For Adler the "Maladjustment occurs when a person's personal goals are inconsistent with social interest…that is, the person strives for personal superiority without regard for the welfare of others" (Lewis and Osborn, 2004, p1).

Another important central concept in Adlerian theory is subjectivity. Adler believed that human perception is "subjectively interpreted" (Dunn, 1971, p. 8). This is an essential aspect of the theory in that is places emphasis on the psychological and phenomenological worldview of the individual. In other words, from this perspective"…it is not what has happened to the child that matters, but rather how the child has viewed what has happened" (Dunn, 1971, p. 8).

This subjective perception is termed the "schema of apperception" in Adlerian theory and "… includes the person's view of self, others, and the world "(Watts and Critelli, 1997). Furthermore, this theoretical stance "…emphasizes that the person is an active, creative agent in the construction of his own personality, not merely a passive reactor shaped by his environment" (Watts and Critelli, 1997, p.147).

Therefore, the therapist and counselor should be aware of the subjective view or interpretation of reality of the patient. This has important implications in many fields; for example, in education. Using Adler's theory, "…apparent under-achievement in school is to be understood more in terms of the student subjective interpretations than in terms of standardized test results" (Dunn, 1971, p. 8). This also relates to Adler's emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual. For example he states that, "I have found that each individual has a different meaning of, and attitude toward, what constitutes success. Therefore, a human being cannot be typified or classified ( Adler, 1964, p. 68). This is a crucial aspect of his theoretical stance and the refusal to categorize human beings leads to an open-ended view of personality.

Holism is a concept that has a particularly significant place in the overall meaning of Adlerian theory. This refers to the integrated and individual nature of the human personality. In terms of a holistic perspective the individual cannot be understood as a collection or amalgam of separate psychological aspects or "parts" but rather as a whole and integrated dynamic system. This also takes into account the understanding of the individual in relationship to the environment and social context in which he or she lives and functions. From this perspective the individual is seen as a "…unified psychobiological organism" (Dunn, 1971, p. 8). This is underlined by Adler's statement that; " Individual Psychology has established the presumption, against which no argument can be found, of the unity and self-consistency of the personality" ( Adler, 1964, p. 24).

The above point on holism also leads to the Adlerian concept of Style of Life. Style of Life is the overall understanding of the overall psychological unity of the individual. According to Adler, "…every individual is characterized by unity across the broad spectrum of personality-cognitions, affect, and behavior" (Wattsand Critelli, 1997. P.147). Therefore, Style of Life is in essence a "cognitive blueprint" of the unique individual, which includes aspects such as subjective perceptions, goals as well as belief systems (Watts and Critelli, 1997. P.147). A person's lifestyle is therefore the unique and characteristic way that the individual perceives himself as well as other. It is also the key to understanding his world and immediate environment and, even more importantly, this perception is central to the way that the individual strives and is motivated towards certain life goals (Lewis and Osborn, 2004, p1).