178). For example, Sakkal reports that, "The measuring system of Ibn Muqlah is based on a circle with a diameter that equals the height of the letter Alef. It controls the correct proportions of the letters by comparing them to the circle, and by diagonal dots written with the calligraphy pen" (1993:9). In his analysis of Ibn Muqla's role in the standardization of the geometrical basis of Arabic writing, Ernst, citing an early treatise, illustrates the religious significance of the circle as being an integral part of these revisions to calligraphic script: "God (glory be to the Most High) created the world in a circular form. The master Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al- Husayn ibn Muqla the scribe (may God have mercy on him) realized that writing could be made circular. He transmitted that method of [round] Kufic in this fashion that is now current, so that it would be related to the creation of the Earth, which is the principle of all principles" (432). The religious significance of the art form was also related to the connection between the calligrapher and the divine message as codified in the Quran. For example, Ganem notes that, "Calligraphy was perceived as capturing the spirit of the calligrapher through the contiguous relation of his hand with the reed pen and paper. In this way, the calligrapher partakes in the sacredness of the Qur'an, for it is through his body that the text is copied and made evident" (2009:2).
The various geometric figures and calligraphy used in Islamic sacred texts have become the hallmarks of Islamic art. According to Rodriguez, geometric figures and calligraphy "substitute for human figures, which Islamic religious teachings believe encourage idolatry. Fortuitously, Arabic script lends itself to incorporation into physical art. Certain numerals and passages from the Qur'an have acquired special significance through repetitive use as decoration" (2008:106). The following calligraphic scripts have assumed particular prominence in Islamic art:
1. The "ninety-nine sublime attributes and beautiful names of God" (AlAsma Allah al-Husna);
2. The affirmation of the Muslim faith (ash-shahada): "La Hah illallah Muhammad-ur Rasulul Allah"-"There is no God but God and Mohammed is his messenger"; and,
3. The summary of the Muslim faith: "Bismlllah Ar-Rahman Ar-Rahim" - "In the name of God, the Charitable, the Merciful" (Rodriguez 2008:107).
This inextricable connection between the divine and calligraphy elevated the art form throughout the Muslim world, making its practice a highly esteemed profession and enviable skill. Indeed, Blair and Bloom emphasize that, "Calligraphy is the only form of visual art universally admired by Muslims, and its ubiquity is the one feature that distinguishes Islamic art from other artistic traditions. The study of Arabic calligraphy is vital to understanding the visual world of Islamic art and how it differs from other traditions" (152). The importance of Islamic calligraphy to the Islamic world may not be completely understood by Western observers who may, though, certainly appreciate its elegance and beauty. In this regard, Blair and Bloom add that, "Even for those Westerners who come to appreciate the formal and abstract values of Islamic calligraphy, such a one-sided appreciation trivializes the semantic content of the message" (153). Taken together, it is clear that calligraphy is an important part of the Islamic world and while much has been written concerning its origins and applications, less has been published concerning the role of women and calligraphy in early Islam, and these issues are discussed further below.
The Role of Women in Adopting Calligraphy
As noted above, while a growing body of research has been directed at identifying the origins and evolution of Islamic calligraphy in general, less attention has been focused on the role of women in adopting calligraphy during the early Islamic era. According to Haddad and Findly (1985), this paucity of attention is due to two primary factors: "The task of discussing the depiction in the imagery of Islamic art of the role of women in Islamic society and culture is an unusually difficult one, for two separate but complementary reasons. The first is the extremely tenuous nature of the status of art itself in Islamic society and culture. The second is the problematic nature of defining the role of women in Islamic society and culture" (147). Despite this lack of scholarly research, some evidence has emerged in recent years concerning how and why women came to practice calligraphy during this period in Islam's history.
The role of women in adopting calligraphy as a livelihood was based in large part on pragmatic needs and the traditional practice of entire families engaging in the discipline. For example, Sakkal reports that, "Calligraphy skills often stayed within families, and were usually passed down from father to son. It was not uncommon to find entire families who earned their...
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