Burnout among counselors in Wisconsin technical colleges

Burnout and Technical College Counselors

This research proposal outlines the background, theoretical and research foundations, as well as the methodological framework, of a study that will investigate the prevalence of burnout in counselors within the sixteen (16) colleges in the Wisconsin Technical College System (WTCS). The construct of burnout for the purposes of this study is defined as emotional exhaustion, depersonalization or cynicism and inefficacy of a counselor. While all professions have some level of stress involved, the research quickly emphasizes that school counselors in general and those at 2-year institutions tend to experience inordinately high levels of work-related stress that may contribute to a higher incidence of burnout. This research suggests that there is a distinct difference between counselor burnout as a function of whether or not they deliver services at a 4-year or a 2-year post secondary institution. Further, this research posits that this difference may be directly related to the diversity of the student body at 2-year post- secondary institutions as well as the type of services counselors provide as a result of the vast diversity of the students they serve as well as the broad range of needs these students typically present.

The diversity in this sense is less cultural and more situational as students at 2-year institutions tend to be non-traditional students (e.g., first-generation college students, working full time and/or be single parents, etc.). Counselors in 2-year post secondary institutions tend to provide "traditional" academic support and interpersonal counseling. In addition, school counselors at 2-year institutions frequently have to work with students who are more directly impacted by a wide range of life stressors, such as child-rearing responsibilities, work-related requirements or conversely, loss of income, poor study habits, just to name a few.

While admittedly there has been very little research specific to the relationship between burnout and counselors employed in technical colleges, a study to investigate the burnout among technical colleges' counselors seemed appropriate to understand and to address remedies to counter burnout in counselors employed in technical colleges.

CHAPTER I

Introduction

In 1975, Herbert Freudenberger first used the term "burnout" (Skovolt, 2001) as a characterization of his substance-abusing clients. Based on his extensive professional experience with the phenomenon, Freudenberger defined burnout as being a syndrome that included the symptoms of exhaustion, a discernible pattern of neglecting an individual's own needs, being committed and dedicated to a cause, working too long and too intensely, feeling pressures coming from within oneself, being pressured from harried staff administrators, and from giving too much to needy clients (1974, p. 161). In addition, Freudenberger also determined that individuals working in the helping professions tend to "pay a 'high cost' for 'high achievement' in either their personal or professional lives" (1983, p. 25). In sum, Freudenberger's definition of burnout was "Someone in a state of fatigue or frustration brought about by devotion to a cause, way of life, or relationship that failed to produce the expected reward"; in other words, "Whenever the expectation level is dramatically opposed to reality and the person persists in trying to reach that expectation, trouble is on the way" (Freudenberger, 1980, p. 13).

Since that time, more than 30 years' worth of research has been accumulated on the phenomenon of burnout in a wide range of professions (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). In this regard, Hall, Gardner, Perl, Stickney and Pfefferbaum (as cited in Watkins, 1983) described burnout as wearing out, failing, and becoming exhausted. Ryan (1976) described it as physical and emotional exhaustion, loss of self-confidence, and an inability to continue the caring and the commitment that was initially brought to the job. Perlman and Hartman (1980) described burnout as feelings of exhaustion, the development of chronic negative attitudes about oneself and/or clientele, and lowered job performance. Forney, Wallace-Shutzman, and Wiggers (as cited in Watkins, 1983) described it as a two-dimensional phenomenon, consisting of a significant loss of motivation, enthusiasm and energy, as well as a marked departure from the individual's behavioral norm. Murray (1987) expressed burnout as a generalized reaction to some form of frustration. Pines and Aronson (as cited in Emerson & Markos, 1996) explained it as physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion brought on by involvement over prolonged periods with emotionally demanding situations and weakness. Maslach (2003) summarized the past work on burnout by writing, "What has emerged from all this research is a conceptualization of job burnout as a psychological syndrome in response to chronic interpersonal stressors on the job" (p.189).

It is important to emphasize, though, that while burnout can be caused by stress and stress is typically a symptom of burnout, the two conditions are not synonymous. For example, Wilkerson and Bellini note that, "The psychological literature on occupational stress usually defines stress as an individually based, affect-ladened experience caused by subjectively perceived stressors" (p. 441). While Maslach (1993) acknowledged that there were similarities between the constructs of job stress and burnout, she maintained that the three-component model of burnout is what differentiates burnout from the construct of stress identified in the research to date (Wilkerson & Bellini). According to these authors, "With its emphasis on emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment, and the symptoms of depersonalization, she contended that the burnout construct contributes something unique to existing bodies of literature" (Wilkerson & Bellini, p. 441).

Over the past 30 years, the construct burnout has acquired various definitions; however, the multitude of definitions consistently describes some or all aspects of the same three components: exhaustion, depersonalization, and inefficacy (Maslach and Leiter, 1997, 2003). According to the three-component model, Baum, Revenson and Singer (2001) report that, "Burnout is an individual stress experience embedded in a context of complex social relationships, and it involves the person's conception of both self and others" (p. 416). The emotional exhaustion component of burnout refers to feelings of tiredness and fatigue (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002). The depletion or draining of emotional and physical energies is caused when individuals overextend themselves and become overwhelmed by the demands of others (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001).

Depersonalization or cynicism, described as the second component of burnout, is an attempt to put distance between oneself and the client (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Cynicism refers to a negative, callous, or excessively detached response to various aspects of the job (Angerer, 2003). Inefficacy is the feeling that one is inadequate (Angerer 2003). Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) and Angerer (2003) sum up the dimension of inefficacy by referring to the feelings of productivity and non-productivity at work, stating that individuals began to see themselves unworthy of the profession and began to view their role as unimportant.

The growing body of research concerning burnout indicates that individuals who pursue helping professions such as nursing, teaching, and counseling are more likely to experience burnout because of personal characteristics, such as a willingness and commitment to the provision of care and comfort for others (Schaufeli, Salavona, Gonzalez-Roma & Bakker, 2002; Skovholt, 2001; Swanton, Stude, Unruh & Swanton, 2001). Most of the burnout research on the counseling profession has investigated psychologists, rehabilitation counselors and social workers. For instance, there have been a few studies that have demonstrated a correlation of burnout among school counselors in 4-year institutions with various demographic variables, individual personality attributes, and organizational issues, but by and large the there remains a paucity of research concerning burnout and school counselors in general (Wilkerson & Bellini) and among technical college or community college counselors in particular. Therefore, this study seeks to expand on this body of knowledge by examining burnout as it produces emotional exhaustion, depersonalization or cynicism and inefficacy among counselors working in technical colleges.

Existing research suggests that there may be a significant degree of burnout among the identified population. Further, the research delineates that this prevalence of burnout may be directly related to the diversity of the student body (e.g., older adult, first generation, working full time and/or single parents, etc.) at two-year post secondary institutions as well as the type of services counselors provide to the students they serve. Counselors in 2-year post secondary institutions tend to provide "traditional" academic support and interpersonal counseling. In addition, they frequently have to work with students who are more directly impacted by life stressors which are encapsulated in their effort to balance everyday life, work, and school. To date, there has been very little research specific to the relationship between burnout and counselors employed in technical colleges; therefore, a study to investigate the burnout among technical college counselors seemed appropriate, relevant and timely in order to understand and to address instances of burnout in counselors employed in technical colleges.

Although most, if not all, postsecondary educational institutions provide some type of counseling services to students, the counseling services provided, and the role the counselor performs depends largely upon the nature and the size of the institution (Dean, 2000). According to Craig and Norton, (2000), counselors' duties at 4-year colleges are usually specialized in one or two areas such as career counseling, personal counseling, and academic advising. In comparison, counselors' duties at 2-year colleges consist of career counseling, academic advising, crisis intervention, personal counseling, and other miscellaneous tasks. The assumption here is that counselor burnout may be heightened as a result of the diversity of students who attend post secondary educational institutions, and the variety of services the 2-year postsecondary counselors must provide to these students. This assumption is congruent with the findings of a study by Wilkerson and Bellini (2006) who advise, "Professional school counselors are asked to perform multiple duties as part of their daily work. Some of these duties match the descriptions set forth by national standards for school counseling programs, whereas others do not" (p. 440).

Consequently, school counselors are required to formulate decisions on a daily basis concerning the best way to perform their jobs (Wilkerson & Bellini). Not surprisingly, many school counselors are overwhelmed by these constantly changing working conditions and requirements, and a number of counselors experience high levels of stress as a result. Because the connection between high levels of stress in the workplace and burnout are well documented, these findings represent issues of special concern because of the potential adverse impact on counselors' mental and physical well-being. Moreover, stress has also been associated with burnout (Wilkerson & Bellini). Consequently, heightened levels of stress and burnout can result in ineffective job performance, exhaustion, physical complaints, anxiety, depression, and even increased incidences of substance abuse (Wilkerson & Bellini). There is concern, too, that as stress increases, not only do school counselors experience negative consequences, so too do those with whom they work and the students they counsel.

Statement of the Problem

Burnout has been examined in other counseling professions such as school counselors (Butler and Constantine, 2005), rehabilitation counselors (Layne, Hohenshil, & Singh, 2004), school psychologists (Miles & Chittooraan, 2001), and mental health and substance abuse counselors (Osborne, 2004), there has yet to be a study dedicated to counselors in a technical colleges. Therefore, by understanding the specific aspects of burnout that occur in counselors in the technical colleges in general and those in the Wisconsin Technical College System in particular, it will be possible to guide the counseling supervisors in identifying and supporting appropriate professional development opportunities for intervention and prevention of burnout, which can be reasonably expected to lead to improved service to the students.

Community and technical college counseling environments promote more of a risk of burnout than other college or university environments (Durodoye, Harris, & Bolden, 2000). This study will gather more information about the prevalence of burnout experienced by certified counselors in the Wisconsin Technical College System; the relationship between selected demographics (age, gender, level of education, years of counseling experience, average number of hours per week worked above contracted hours and the number of professional development activities completed per year) and burnout among this population; the most frequently identified stress related issue(s) or situation(s) experienced by this group; and, the relationship between their own perception of their counseling role and level of burnout. Finding the answers to these questions will allow for a clearer picture of prevalence and impact of burnout has on these counselors working in the Wisconsin Technical College System. However, if this topic is not studied the literature on burnout as it relates to counselors in all educational settings would continue to be incomplete. Also, counseling services in the Wisconsin Technical College System may not obtain the necessary information for counseling supervisors to develop professional development strategies in order to prevent and intervene with those counselors experiencing burnout. Lastly, without the information this study could provide students may receive less than adequate counseling services because of an impaired counselor.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is threefold; first, to determine the prevalence of burnout experienced by certified counselors in the WTCS; second, to determine the most frequently occurring stressful issues or situations experienced by certified counselors in the WTCS; and third, to examine the relationship between selected demographics and perceived levels of burnout. The ability to identify and quantify these characteristics is important for the technical colleges because of the role the counselor performs. In most cases, counselors are the first contact for new students and a frequent contact for continuing students. Therefore, given the consequences of burnout, counselors who are experiencing burnout are at risk of providing less than quality services to students (Renjilian, Baum, & Landry 1998; Renjilian & Stites, 2002). By conducting this study, the discoveries may identify characteristics that could be used to develop interventions to help combat counselor burnout and possibly prevent impaired service.

This research is significant for two primary reasons: First, the results from this study can add to the existing literature and data supporting the validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and its many studies. From a review of the literature on the subject of counselor burnout, very little is directly related to college counselors, and less so for post secondary or technical college counselors. Much of the MBI studies have focused on teachers and mental health or rehabilitative counselors (Layne, Hohenshil, & Singh, 2004; Miles & Chittooraan, 2001; Osborne, 2004).

Secondly, by investigating counselor burnout in the technical college system, the data and findings from this study can potentially identify interventions, resources, and strategies that could serve to effectively assist counselors and counseling supervisors in identifying, preventing, and dealing with counselor burnout.

Research Questions

The research questions guiding this study are:

1. What is the prevalence of burnout experienced by certified counselors in the WTCS?

2. What is the relationship between selected demographics (age, gender, and level of education, years of counseling experience, average number of hours per week worked above contracted hours, and the number of professional development activities completed per year) and burnout among certified counselors working in the WTCS?

3. What do certified counselors working in the WTCS indicate as the most frequent stress related issue(s) or situation(s) they experience?

4. What is the relationship between certified counselors' perception of their counseling role and burnout within the WTCS?

Definitions of Terms

For the purpose of this study the following definitions will apply.

Burnout: Burnout has been defined as a "complex phenomenon involving a sense of exhaustion, detachment, and lack of effectiveness with respect to one's job and-or one's interactions with other people on the job" (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001).

Community college/technical college: This term will refer to colleges that offer a 2-year curriculum typically leading to the award of an associates degree or comparable certificate upon completion.

Counselor: The term counselor is defined as an individual who meets the WTCS provisional certification requirements for counselors, which consists of a Master's degree in guidance and counseling (including a practicum experience); or bachelor's degree and 30 semesters graduate credits in counseling and guidance (including the practicum experience); 24 months of occupational experience in any field except education and 2 years professional experience as an counselor.

Limitations and Assumptions

This descriptive study is a one-time quantitative design utilizing a survey and a demographic questionnaire. The research questions required correlations and multiple regression statistical analysis. Given the convenience of the population there is a possibility of bias due to the size of the population and the number of responses to the survey. Also, the ability to generalize from the data will be limited, particularly because the study is limited to only one post secondary institution within the WTCS and specifically to counselors employed within that system. While there is the possibility that the validity demonstrated holds true only for this particular population, this present study is weakened because there is no direct comparison to a four-year post secondary institution (e.g., no questionnaires or surveys to counselors working outside of the WTCS, etc.). In addition, the findings of the study are also limited to the reliability and validity of the survey and the accuracy of respondents' self- perceptions and attitudes, as well as relying on counselors from each of the 16 WTCS schools to participate by returning the surveys.

This study is inherently dependent upon the instrument, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), as an adequate measure of professional burnout within the organization. Subsequently if there are intrinsic problems with this instrument, it is difficult but possible to build on the premises and/or hypothesis on a fragmented or faulty foundation. One other aspect that this present study did not investigate is how students perceive and/or rate the counseling services they receive. An additional flaw of this present study it is assumed that the participants in the survey understand the directions and content of the survey form and responded honestly. Nevertheless as this is an opportunity to add information to the body of knowledge in this regard, this author is certain that useful information will result from this study that can in fact set the framework for future studies.

Summary

This research proposal outlines the background, theoretical and research foundations, as well as the methodological framework, of a study that will investigate the prevalence of burnout in counselors within the sixteen (16) WTCS. Burnout for the intent of this study is defined as emotional exhaustion. The literature on postsecondary educational counselors indicates that people who become counselors typically enter the profession due to an intrinsic desire to help people through academic, social, and personal issues, and usually believe that their work is meaningful and helpful. Over the past 30 years, the construct burnout has acquired various definitions; however, the multitude of definitions consistently describes some or all aspects of the same three characteristics: exhaustion, depersonalization, and inefficacy.

By understanding the aspects of burnout in counselors in the WTCS, it will help guide the counseling supervisors in identifying and supporting appropriate professional development opportunities for intervention and prevention of these aspects. The three pivotal reasons behind this study are:

1. To determine the prevalence of burnout experienced by certified counselors in the WTCS.

2. To determine the most frequently occurring stressful issues or situations experienced by certified counselors in the WTCS.

3. To examine the relationship between selected demographics and the perceived levels of burnout.

This research is significant, as it has the following benefits:

1. It will contribute to two areas of existing research (the MBI and the study of counselor burnout in post secondary educational institutions.

2. It may suggest ways in which counselor burnout can be minimized and treated.

This research has the following limitations:

1. The methodology (returning surveys) do no guarantee that the experience of counselors at each of the 16 schools will be reported; subsequently the results may be one dimensional and/or biased thus not entirely reflective of the WTCS as a whole.

2. There are no participants from four-year post-secondary institutions.

3. Students who receive services from counselors are not surveyed; however, this author believes that scholarly discovery begins from inquiry and investigation even though scientific methodologies and access to populations have limitations.

This present study represents the beginning of this field of inquiry and the research which follows should be an extension and improvement that adds to the existing body of knowledge and provides the opportunity to make further inferences about these populations.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW of LITERATURE

Introduction

This literature review focuses on and examines three specific components:

1. The construct of burnout including its characteristics and defined symptoms.

2. Counselors and the characteristics of burnout including both personal and environmental factors, as well as counselor burnout in post-secondary education.

3. The impact of counselor burnout on students.

The literature review is designed to explore the three specific components to provide the reader with a broader based understanding of the problem, implications to the effectiveness of counselors at the post-secondary institute, as well as to begin to explore possible remedies. Key to this dialogue is an understanding of what burnout it and how it affects counselors and impacts students specifically and the post secondary institute in general.

Overview of Burnout

The early research and literature on burnout bring to light three components that make up the syndrome known as burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization or cynicism, and a lack of personal accomplishment or inefficacy and each component contains different characteristics that join with each other and produce the experience of burnout in individuals (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). In this regard, Cohen and Sheer (1997) note that, "The subject of burnout has been a much studied phenomenon in the field of education. In looking at the particular kind of malaise that afflicts many veteran teachers, researchers have wondered what factors most contribute to that condition, and what good teachers might be able to do to avoid succumbing to it" (p. 293). The construct of burnout among education professionals typically includes three basic components.

1. The first component describes the emotional exhaustion that is typical of burnout out teachers, or "the tired and fatigued feeling that develops as emotional energies are drained" (Maslach, Jackson, & Schwab, 1996, p. 28); the impact of this diminished capacity can adversely effect the professional's engagement in their work with students and decrease their interest in new and innovative practices.

2. The second component of burnout in the education field is the depersonalization phase at which point professionals no longer have positive feelings about their students and display indifferent or even negative attitudes toward their students.

3. The final component of the burnout construct in the field of education is a sense of low personal accomplishment from the job, when they feel that they no longer are contributing to students' development; in this regard, educators' level of professional burnout has been found to correlate with turnover intentions, absenteeism, and somatic problems, as well as attributions about students' misbehavior and negative interactions with students (Han & Weiss, 2005).

Although the term and concept of "burnout" has not been universally acknowledged, the condition has been the focus of an increasing amount of investigation in recent years. For instance, Maslach (1976) used the term "burnout" to describe a specific type of stress response that is experienced by people who work in the helping professions (i.e., nurses, social workers, police officers and educators). As Whitehead, Ryba and O'Driscoll (2000) phrase it, "Burnout refers to a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from involvement with people in emotionally demanding situations. A number of studies on burnout have focused specifically on the teaching profession due to the fact that this profession is one of the largest and most visible professions in society and a recognition of the extreme demands and pressures which teachers often confront" (p. 52). Furthermore, some educational professionals appear to be more susceptible to the effects of everyday stresses that are inherent in the profession; however, others appear to be more resilient to the deleterious effects that go hand-in-hand with such working conditions and continue remain effective on the job in spite of the obstacles (McMullen, 1999). In a study by McMullen (1999), it was shown that developmentally appropriate beliefs and practices, as well as the factors, may serve as mediating factors between beliefs and practices (i.e., self-efficacy, locus of control, trait anxiety, and educational and professional experiences) in ways that promote resiliency. More research in this area, though, is required to formulate informed observations concerning these issues. The various components of burnout are discussed further below.

Emotional Exhaustion

Emotional exhaustion, the first dimension, is the main feature of burnout and the most visible manifested symptom. When people describe themselves or others as experiencing burnout, they are most often referring to the experience of exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of tiredness and fatigue (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002). These feelings of tiredness or fatigue may be directly related to the rigors and demands on an individual's profession. For instance, according to Abraham (1999), "As the pressure for conformity increases with multiple, conflicting organizational demands, continued attempts to meet demands may lead to frustration and distress, culminating in emotional exhaustion. This causal sequence may be the underlying reason for findings of role conflict leading to emotional exhaustion over time" (p. 62). The depletion or draining of emotional and physical energies is caused when individuals overextend themselves and become overwhelmed by the demands of others (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). There is an innate sense of being helpless in the face of such overwhelming circumstances as well. For instance, Baum and his associates note that in the case of emotional exhaustion, "People feel drained and used up, without any source of replenishment. They lack enough energy to face another day or another person in need. The emotional exhaustion component represents the basic stress dimension of burnout" (p. 416). Following the onset of the emotional exhaustion component of burnout, individuals begin to distance themselves from clients and/or professional activities (Ryan, 1976), leading them into the second component of burnout, depersonalization or cynicism, which is discussed further below.

Depersonalization or Cynicism

Depersonalization or cynicism, described as the second component of burnout, is an attempt to put distance between oneself and the client (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). According to these authors, "The cynicism (or depersonalization) component represents the interpersonal context dimension of burnout. It refers to a negative, callous, or excessively detached response to various aspects of the job" (p. 397). As to this component of burnout, Maslach (1982) stated that distancing is such an acute response to exhaustion that a clear relationship from exhaustion to depersonalization or cynicism is found consistently in burnout research. Cynicism refers to a negative, callous, or excessively detached response to various aspects of the job (Angerer, 2003). Certainly, it is unreasonable to expect anyone in any profession to start their work every day intending to "set the world on fire" and truly make a substantive difference in their workplace and the world. Indeed, the human condition is variable and everyone has their good days and bad days. By and large, though, most school counselors being their careers eagerly, desiring to help students with the skills and tools they have invested so much time, effort and resources in acquiring.

When people become sufficiently disillusioned with their jobs or become overwhelmed by their responsibilities, though, they may manifest this component of burnout in ways that detract from their effectiveness over the long-term. For instance, Fagan and Warden (1996) report that, "Persons experiencing burnout often begin their professional careers with great enthusiasm and zeal. When confronted by the realities of job demands, however, such individuals may experience the components of burnout" (p. 296). One of the more adverse components of burnout is the aforementioned second, or depersonalization / cynicism, that can have profound health consequences for the school counselor. In this regard, Baum et al. report that, "Depersonalization refers to a negative, callous, or excessively detached response to other people, which often includes a loss of idealism. It usually develops in response to the overload of emotional exhaustion, and is self-protective at first -- an emotional buffer of 'detached concern'" (p. 416). In extreme cases, though, such "detached concern" can assume the levels of dehumanization in ways that make interpersonal communication difficult or constrained in ways that will inevitably affect the ability of an individual to remain effective on the job. As Baum and his colleagues point out, "The depersonalization component represents the interpersonal dimension of burnout" (p. 416).

While this component of burnout will likely have some adverse physical and emotional effects on virtually anyone in any type of profession, in the case of community college counselors, though, depersonalization or cynicism can have some profoundly adverse consequence for more than just the counselor involved. When exhausted, individuals become unresponsive to other people's needs and begin to develop an indifference or cynical attitude as a way to protect themselves from exhaustion and disappointment (Angerer, 2003). The cynical feelings toward others can continue to become exacerbated until individuals feel distress or guilt about the way they have thought about or treated others (Watkins, 1983). In the helping professions, this can lead to a feeling of reduced personal accomplishment or inefficacy (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001).

Inefficacy or Lack of Personal Accomplishment

Inefficacy is the third component of burnout. Maslach (1982) noted that exhaustion and cynicism lead directly to ineffectiveness. According to Angerer (2003), inefficacy is the feeling that one is inadequate. Not surprisingly, "If one feels inadequate, accomplishments seem trivial and projects seem overwhelming" (Maslach et al., p. 399). Any work situation with constant, overwhelming demands that contribute to exhaustion or cynicism is likely to grind down one's sense of effectiveness, competence, and achievement. It can be tough to realize a sense of accomplishment when feeling exhausted (Maslach, 1982). A diminished sense of personal accomplishment, then, describes a decrease in the level of an individual's feelings concerning personal competence and productivity in a given job. According to Baum and his associates, "This lowered sense of self-efficacy has been linked to depression and an inability to cope with the demands of the job, and it can be exacerbated by a lack of social support and of opportunities to develop professionally. Staff members experience a growing sense of inadequacy about their ability to help clients, and this may result in a self-imposed verdict of failure" (p. 416). This final component of burnout represents the self-evaluation dimension (Baum et al.). Finally, Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) and Angerer (2003) sum up the dimension of inefficacy by referring to the feelings of productivity and non-productivity at work, stating that individuals began to see themselves unworthy of the profession and began to view their role as unimportant.

The amount of research on burnout has grown mainly due to the development of the various assessments and inventories. Maslach and Jackson (1981) developed the original Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), which continues to be the premier assessment for measuring burnout. According to Baum et al., "The interrelations among the three components of burnout have been the subject of much theorizing and research. The only measure that assesses all three of these burnout components is the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), so it is considered the standard tool for research in this field" (p. 416).

Subsequently, Maslach and Jackson developed a series of MBIs to be used with other occupational fields, such as the MBI-Human Services Survey for human service workers and the MBI- Educators Survey (MBI-ES) for use with teachers in 1986 (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). The MBI-ES was designed specifically for use with the education population and therefore represents a logical choice for use in this study as well. According to Wilkerson and Bellini, "The only difference between it and the MBI-HSS is the substitution of the word students for recipients in one third of the items (Sandoval, 1989). This inventory uses a 7-point Likert scale. For each item, respondents are asked to indicate how often a particular feeling or attitude has been experienced in their work environment. The responses range from 0 (never) to 6 (every day)" (p. 441). The results of the inventory provide results for three different subscales: (a) Emotional Exhaustion (EE), (b) Depersonalization (DP), and (c) Personal Accomplishment (PA); however, the inventory does not produce a summed or total score for the entire survey (Wilkerson & Bellini). The MBI-ES reflects heightened degrees of burnout when scores are elevated on the EE and DP subscales and depressed scores on the PA subscale (Wilkerson & Bellini). In 1981, Iwanicki and Schwab reported Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the three different subscales on the MBI-ES as being .90 for EE, .76 for DP, and .76 for PA; however, Gold (1984) reported estimates of .88, .74, and .72, respectively. Maslach et al. (1996) noted that these reliability coefficients closely parallel those of the MBI-HSS, the more frequently used version of the MBI (Wilkerson & Bellini, p. 441).

Based on a growing interest of the impact of burnout in other fields of endeavor, in 1996, Maslach, Jackson and Leiter developed the MBI-General Survey (MBI-GS). This MBI inventory helped to expand the research beyond human service and education and into other occupations that are not primarily people-oriented, but with respect to the job, and not just to the personal relationships that may be a part of that job (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter 1996). Although the effects of burnout may differ from individual to individual, there are a sufficient number of commonalities identified in the literature to formulate some general findings concerning the symptoms associated with burnout, and these issues are discussed further below.

Symptoms of Burnout

The symptoms of burnout usually manifest themselves gradually in ways that may make their identification difficult for the individual school counselor. Like a frog placed in a pan of water and heated to boiling that fails to recognize the increasingly dangerous environment in which it is placed, school counselors may not realize that they are suffering from burnout and will either remain ineffective in their jobs or leave the field entirely. In this regard, Heath and Sheen (2005) advise that, "Symptoms of burnout typically have a slow onset, almost indiscernible to the affected individual. Smoldering in the background, burnout gradually expands, squeezing out an individual's enthusiasm for his or her job and for life, in general" (p. 153). Given the enormous amount of time, effort and resources that are required to become a school counselor in the first place, it is little wonder that burnout represents such a profoundly insidious condition which can have serious implications for a counselor's mental and physical health. As Lambie (2006) emphasizes, "Burnout can be an extremely painful experience. It is a gradual and complex process that is not marked by sudden onset but rather by slow and gradual change in functioning, having no beginning and ending point but varying levels or degrees (Schaufeli et al., 1993). This process can lead to other forms of counselor impairment, including depression and substance abuse" (p. 33).

According to Grosch and Olson (1994), the symptoms of burnout typically fall into four categories: (a) physical, (b) emotional, (c) behavioral, and (d) interpersonal. Physical symptoms frequently include exhaustion, sleep difficulties, headaches, gastrointestinal disturbances and colds, insomnia, muscle tension, and ulcers (Forney, Wallace-Schutzman, & Wiggers as cited in Watkins 1983). According to Watkins (1983) Emotional symptoms commonly include the following: (a) depression; (b) irritability; (c) sense of guilt; (d) anxiety; (e) helplessness; (f) hopelessness; (g) frustration; (h) pessimism; and, (i) depression.

Behavioral symptoms regularly include low productivity, alcoholism, drug abuse, incessant complaining, daydreaming, loss of enthusiasm, and procrastination (Grosch & Olson, 1994). Interpersonal symptoms usually include lack of concentration, withdrawal, and the intellectualizing of the client (Grosch & Olson, 1994). Additional symptoms include strained relationships with co-workers, family members, and significant others; reluctance to admit that a problem exists or to seek help; and quitting the job or profession entirely (Angerer, 2003). According to Lambie (2006), the symptoms of burnout can affect the individual counselor's entire spectrum of life conditions: "The consequences of burnout, including therapeutic ineffectiveness, premature occupational attrition, depression, and substance abuse, are potentially serious for counselors, both personally and professionally. Burnout is a form of impairment that affects all aspects of a counselor's functioning, not just his or her professional abilities" (p. 32). In the end, burnout is not usually just a temporary state. It can become an unhealthy condition if allowed to progress untreated (Watkins, 1983).

Whereas the many definitions of burnout consistently lead to the same three components (i.e., exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy), the many symptoms of burnout, whether from the physical, emotional, behavioral or interpersonal categories, lead to the same inevitable consequences: a decrease in effectiveness and a decrease in work performance (Schaufeli, Maslach, & Marek, as cited in Angerer, 2003). Unfortunately, it would seem that most helping professionals, including counselors, possess characteristics which predisposed them to this construct. For example, Lambie notes that, "Counselors may have increased susceptibility to burnout because of their training to be empathic which is essential to the formation of a therapeutic relationship. In fact, research has found counselor empathy to account for two thirds of the variance in supporting clients' positive behavioral change" (p. 32). The ability to remain empathic to the plights and challenges typically being experienced by students in community colleges is complicated by the enormous diversity that is increasingly characterizing these institutions, of course, but all helping professionals run the risk of becoming burned out while performing their responsibilities by virtue of their empathic sharing. In this regard, Lambie emphasizes that, "Empathy helps counselors understand the client's experience, but at the same time, a counselor may experience the emotional pain of multiple traumatized clients. Empathy is a double-edged sword; it is simultaneously your greatest asset and a point of real vulnerability; therefore, a fundamental skill of effective counselors, being empathic, may place counselors at high risk for burnout" (p. 33).

Citing the alarming results of a national survey of counselors that indicated that incidence may be almost 40%, Lambie also emphasizes that although all professions involve some degree of stress, counselors and other human service providers are at higher risk of burnout compared to other professionals. For example, this author notes that, "Counseling professionals are often in close contact with people who are in pain and distress. This continuous exposure to others' despair, combined with rare opportunities to share the benefits of clients' successes, heightens counselors' risk for burnout" (Lambie, p. 34). Other authorities confirm the incidence of burnout among educators, and cite even higher rates than the foregoing estimate. For instance, Cheek, Bradley and Lan (2003) report that, "Based on several international studies, approximately 60% to 70% of all teachers repeatedly show symptoms of stress, and a minimum of 30% of all educators show distinct symptoms of burnout" (p. 204). Indeed, a study by Lumsden (1998) determined that overall teacher morale was sufficiently severe that fully 40% of the educators who were surveyed indicated they would not choose teaching again as a career, and far more than half (57%) remained undecided at the time concerning ending their teaching career, were actively making plans to leave teaching, or would opt to leave the teaching field in the event a superior opportunity presented itself.

There are some other qualities that typify school counselors that may predispose them to becoming burned out over the course of time (some quicker than others, of course), but which may reasonably be expected to adversely effect the ability of school counselors to maintain their effectiveness in the workplace. For instance, Lambie concludes that, "Common counselor qualities of being selfless (i.e., putting others first), working long hours, and doing whatever it takes to help a client place them at higher susceptibility to burnout. As a result, counselors may themselves need assistance in dealing with the emotional pressures of their work" (p. 34).

Counselors and Characteristics of Burnout

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