Phobias and addictions: classical and operant conditioning mechanisms

Conditioning Theories: Phobias and Addiction

Phobias and Addiction

Phobias and Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning theory proposes that an individual can acquire a phobic response to a conditioned stimulus (CS), if the CS is paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (UCS) of sufficient strength and/or nature to elicit a negative affective reaction (Armfield, 2006, p. 747). For example, if a golfer is hit by lightening on the 15th hole, the UCS is being hit by lightning and the CS is playing golf. If the golfer lives through the experience, he or she may be unable to overcome the fear of being hit by lightening (unconditioned response) and never be able to walk onto another golf course (conditioned response). If it was a stormy day when the CS was paired with the UCS then the golfer may be able to overcome the new phobia by playing only on clear days, but they will always be watching the sky for any sign of clouds.

The ability of a UCS to elicit a CS has been proposed to depend on four qualities: uncontrollability, unpredictability, dangerousness, and how disgusting it is (Armfield, 2006, pp. 754-757). Being struck by lightning would rate high in uncontrollability, unpredictability, and dangerousness, and would therefore represent a strong UCS. On the other hand, some spiders or snakes may not rate high on any of the four qualities, yet they can elicit a strong negative affective response in some individuals because it is the perception of these qualities that matters most. These 'specific' phobias can be differentiated from classically-conditioned phobias by how easy they develop, an exaggerated response, and a high degree of resistance to treatment (Armfield, 2006, p. 747). Preparedness theory suggests that our predisposition to express specific phobias is a function of our distant ancestors becoming genetically hard-wired to fear such things, in order to increase survival chances in the wilderness. The assumed genetic component of specific phobias represents an unconditioned stimulus.

Addiction and Operant Conditioning

Illicit drug use, when viewed through an operant conditioning lens, is self-reinforcing. The positive reinforcement such drugs inherently provide in the form of pleasant, even euphoric states of consciousness, becomes a form of negative reinforcement for individuals seeking to escape an aversive situation or condition (Flora, 2004, p. 155). Although the risk of addiction is real for both, it is higher for persons seeking to escape an aversive situation. The signs of addiction include gradually increasing dosage and frequency, development of tolerance, shifting of economic resources to drug seeking behaviors, and an increasing neglect of personal needs unrelated to drug use. Laboratory animals have proven to be particularly vulnerable to drug-mediated positive reinforcement, for example preferring cocaine over food and even life, and represent an instructive and valuable research model for human drug addiction behaviors (reviewed in Silverman, 2004, p. 209).

Individuals who seek escape from an aversive situation or condition (chronic pain) are at an increased risk of becoming trapped in a negative reinforcement loop (Flora, 2004, p. 156). Although drug use provides a temporary escape from their problems, the time spent not attending to their lives tends to aggravate their situation and thereby creates a greater need for drug use. Individuals who have become physically addicted to drugs face positive punishment in the form of painful withdrawal symptoms should they attempt to stop taking drugs.