Cultural and Construction History of the Islamic Golden Age

Islamic Technology

Cultural and Construction History of the Islamic Golden Age

Cultural Environment

The Islamic Golden Age is also known as the Caliphate of Islam or the Islamic Renaissance. The term refers to a system of political, cultural, and religious authority derived from the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed in the early sixth century AD. At its high point under the Abbassid Dynasty (eighth to thirteenth centuries AD), Islamic civilisation experienced a flourish of art and culture that blended Arab, Persian, Egyptian, and European elements (Kraemer). The result was an era of incredible intellectual and cultural advancements (Wiet). At the height of its power, the Caliphate controlled all of the present-day Middle East, all of northern Africa and into Spain, and as far east as the Indus Valley, making it among the largest empires of all time and one of the few states ever to extend direct rule over three continents (Kennedy).

Relationship to Previous Periods

Following the disintegration of the great Middle Eastern empires (Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian), the Arab world was not unified and remained a series of nomadic tribes under the nominal control of various warlords. Mohammed and his followers understood that real incentives were needed to increase agricultural production (Chaudry). As a result, Islam became a force for social transformation that made economic stability a reality. This allowed various tribes to coalesce into a community, or umma, united under religious teaching. After unifying, the leaders began a sweeping conquest of all surrounding lands. During the Islamic Golden Age, the Roman Empire transferred most of its political power to Constantinople. The population of Europe was loosely organized under feudalism.

Contribution(s) to Western Civilisation

The Islamic Golden Age extended its rule to Spain and Sicily around AD 700, moving as far north as southern France by AD 730. Through this channel, Islamic arts and sciences entered European consciousness. Al-Hakam II, a ruler of Muslim Spain, gathered as many books as possible from Arab countries and put them in a library. This library became a translation centre for the texts to be rewritten in Latin (Lindberg 57 -- 8). In this way, older knowledge was reintroduced into Europe. Influence was also exerted by the relocation of Arab scholars to Europe. Many had studied Greek texts in their home countries, so they brought those ideas with them (Laughlin 120). In other words, Islamic civilisation contributed to Western civilisation by preserving its own intellectual heritage and reintroducing it at a later date.

Furthermore, the European invasions of the Middle East during the Crusades created instability in the Islamic Empire beginning in the eleventh century, but also allowed a sharing of culture. The crusaders often returned with culture and technology brought from Islamic civilisation. In addition, the Islamic Golden Age kept alive the advances and texts of ancient Greece and Rome. What is most clear is that Islamic civilisation was rife with artists, scholars, philosophers, poets, physicians, and engineers who made significant contributions to the arts and sciences. So valued was the idea of learning during this period that Turner wrote, "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and labourers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent" (Saliba 270).

The Islamic Golden Age had a significant influence not only on the future world affairs of the Islamic world, but they also on the Christian-Latin in Jewish societies of the time (Sahar 4-5). The Islamic Golden Age brought Muslim Society from the fringes to center stage. It allowed Islamic Society to define their identity and their place in the rest of the world. It became a force that would serve as a catalyst to change every other society that it touched through the knowledge that was gained in all areas to which it contributed.

Mediaeval Islam became known as a place where diverse peoples found tolerance. Non-Islamic groups such as the Jews were undoubtedly second class citizens, but they did not find violent oppression while living in these lands (Kessler, p. 32). Fringe groups found tolerance in the Muslim world, while and the rest of the world intolerance reigned, even for Islam. The Crusades are a key example of this intolerance. The question is why Islamic leaders showed tolerance to others, well at the same time they were not shown reciprocal intolerance.

To answer this question one has to examine the influence of religion on Islamic politics. In the world of Islam, religion is not separate from secular law. The answer to religious tolerance words that Jews can be found in the Qur'an. The Qu'ran states that anyone who pays tax shall be protected and shall not be taxed into poverty (Kessler, p. 24). As long as the dues paid tax, there are considered a second class citizen, but were still offered the protection of the government.

The Islamic community not only influenced other cultures by promoting tolerance, it also preserved the ancient knowledge that contributed to the European renaissance (Al-Khalili). The translation of the ancient texts contributed to their own learning and also served as a repository of the knowledge for other civilizations. While Europe was in the dark ages, knowledge and wisdom in the world of Islam were at their peak. The preservation of knowledge and wisdom in Islam's Golden Age set the stage for the European Renaissance by serving as a repository for knowledge that had been lost, and in some cases never existed at all in European societies. Without Islam's commitment to the preservation of ancient knowledge, the European Renaissance might never have happened.

2. Scientific Environment

Background

The Islamic world played a robust role in preserving and developing science during its Golden Age. Its discoveries and theories were passed back to medieval and Byzantine Europe through translations. This included the retranslation of many Western texts previously lost to Europe back into Latin or Greek from the Arabic (Lebedel 109). In this fruitful exchange, Islamic scholars reawakened the ancient Greek philosophical texts, especially Aristotle. Islamic mathematicians developed algebra and algorithms. They added trigonometry to Euclidian geometry. The decimal point was instituted and led to a redevelopment of the Arabic numeric system. In medicine Islamic physicians evolved the germ theory and made pharmacological advances (O'Leary).

Muslim scientists developed quantitative, empirical, and experimental approaches to scientific inquiry. A number of scholars believe that they provided the platform for modern science (Durant 162 -- 86). For example, Al-Haytham (965 -- 1039 AD) introduced and vigorously pursued the scientific method (Steffens). He was considered one of the great pioneers of experimental physics (Gorini, Durant 53 -- 5). He authored the Book of Optics, which proved, using empirical evidence, that light rays entering the eye are responsible for sight. He demonstrated this using an invention known as the camera obscura, which showed the physical nature of light rays (Lindberg 154 -- 76). He also conducted groundbreaking psychological work in visual perception that is regarded as the basis for psychophysics (Khaleefa).

Some of the greatest advances in science and technology that arose during the Islamic golden age were in the field of medicine. Islam did not simply rehash ancient knowledge, they made important advances in all areas of science. They based their new ideas on older texts, and they became known for the ability to cure diseases and conditions that baffled European physiciabs. European medicine was still in the Dark Ages, relying on superstition and magic in many cases. At the same time, Islamic medicine took a more scientific and empirical approach that resembles medical discovery in modern times.

Medical Sciences were so highly developed that the Crusaders relied on them many times. For instance, Joinville reports that he was saved by a "Saracen" doctor in the year 1250 AD (Lebedel 112). This is not an isolated case and there are numerous reports throughout the journals and documents during the time of the crusades. This knowledge was transferred to Europe through the Crusaders who had witnessed Islamic cures, but the transmission of this knowledge throughout Europe was slow or nonexistent. The crusaders brought back the knowledge, while most of the European population was a literate at the time and word of mouth spread slowly or became inaccurately transcribed. Therefore, only a select few had access to the wealth of knowledge flowing from the Islamic doctors.

Technology

From the Islamic world came a number of new technologies that were later adopted in Europe. Some of these inventions were astronomical instruments, including the quadrant, sextant, and observation tube. The latter was influential in creating the telescope (Morelon 9 -- 10). Aside from astronomical technologies, the Islamic world created street lamps, waste disposal facilities (Artz 148 -- 50), ethanol (Hassan), and more than 200 surgical instruments.

Just as medical knowledge spread to Europe via the Crusaders, so did many technologies. For instance, various type of cultural crops and other advances in agricultural science were developed during this time (Watson 8-35). These advances included advanced gearing in waterclocks (Hassan), the revival of distillation processes that were once known to the ancient Greeks and Romans (Hill and King 23), and advances in gearing that led to the further development of new technologies in Europe (Hassan).

Another contribution from the Islamic world was its modifications to libraries. The libraries in Muslim countries had collections of ancient manuscripts that made the scientific discoveries of ancient cultures accessible. In addition, they introduced the public library and the ability to borrow books on loan, thus giving some the opportunity to increase their knowledge. Libraries also served as places to discuss scientific theories and discoveries, rendering science more understandable to the public. Finally, the organisation of books into categories and genres in a catalogue was first introduced in medieval Islamic libraries (Francoise 988 -- 91).

The Islamic Golden Age nourished public education by creating the university. The world's oldest university to grant diplomas is at Al-Karaouine in Morocco. No doubt different than European universities, the early Islamic institutions were a major influence on their later European counterparts (Makdisi 175 -- 82). The doctorate degree was conceived in the medieval Islamic system of legal education. Makdisi mentions other Muslim influences on the university. He says that "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" comes from the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him." He explains that "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." Thus, the Islamic Golden Age not only furthered the scientific method, but also enhanced public learning through pedagogical methods that are still intact today.

The Islamic world saw the founding of the first university's between the 11th and 13th century. This led to an increase in literacy and learning. The idea of the university had spread through most of Europe by the 14th century (Hassan). The establishment of higher educational institutions allowed for more rapid spread of technology and knowledge, a factor that was necessary for the scientific revolution that was to come later.

Transmission of Greek Philosophy

Transmission of Greek Philosophy is another important Islamic contribution. The collapse of the Roman Empire had a knock-on effect whereby many texts of classical antiquity came into the possession of the Europeans. As explained in the section exploring the Byzantine Empire, many of these texts had previously been provided to the Islamic countries. This goodwill gesture led to an unpredictable turn of fate, as during the Middle Ages many of these texts were translated from Arabic back into European languages. Thus, while the original copies in Europe were lost, the passing of the texts to the Middle East led to retranslated texts, which allowed the works of philosophers such as Aristotle to be known once again to the Europeans (Lebedel 109).

Another way in which Greek ideas were reintroduced to Europe was through the expansion of Islam from the Middle East to Europe. Sicily and Spain were conquered in approximately AD 700, with southern France becoming populated by Muslims by AD 730. Al-Hakam II gathered as many books as possible from Arab countries and placed them in a library, which later became a translation centre for the texts to be rewritten in Latin (Lindberg 57 -- 8). Their reintroduction was also furthered by the relocation of Arab scholars who, having studied the Greek texts in their home countries, moved to Europe and brought Greek ideas with them (Laughlin 120).

The translation of ancient Greek texts allowed for the transmission of knowledge into Europe. Ancient Greek texts were translated into Latin for distribution throughout Europe. There are many such books that made their way into European universities via this route (Campbell 6). Arabic works also made their way to Europe through the same route of transmission (Hassan). The filtration of these works into Europe was still limited to those who were literate in European Society. Advancement of science in Europe was slow, and is attributed to the upper class where it remained until the Renaissance.

Alchemy and chemistry

Advances in alchemy and in chemistry made their way into Europe and served as standard texts for European alchemists as early as the 12th century. During the same time, many famous mathematical books were transmitted to Europe, first being translated into Latin (Katz 291). Some of the more notable books included Al-Khazini's Zij, translated into Greek in the 13th century (Hassan), the twelfth-century work of Jabir ibn Aflah (Katz 292), and others. Hundreds of ancient texts made their way into the hands of European scientists via this route.

In Avicenna's the Canon of Medicine, written and 1025 AD, it was noted that infectious diseases could be spread by air. This book also examined how to test new medicines safely and effectively (Tschanz). European surgical techniques for advanced to the translation of the works ofAbu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, in Kitab al-Tasrif, which made its way into Europe during the 1100s. The descriptions of surgical procedures from this text were still being reprinted in the 1770s (Campbell 3).

Physics

The works of Sir Isaac Newton are attributed to advances in physics and optics. However, if one examines the historical record, they will find that many of the ideas presented in Newton's famous works can be found in Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)'s Book of Optics, which was also published in 1021 AD (Salih, Al-Amri and Gomati). Many other advances, such as cartography and theories of motion also had their roots in ancient Islamic texts (Hassan).

The amount of information in science and technology that had a direct effect on the advancement of European science during the Renaissance has led to the argument that the European renaissance may not have happened at all had it not been for the knowledge gained through Islamic texts. Of course, this is pure speculation and no one can tell what would have happened if Europeans did not have access to this knowledge. It is anybody's guess how science and technology to the progress. However, one thing is certain, the Islamic world was a key influence in the direction that scientific want in discovery took as a result of the knowledge gained from the writings.

3. Economic Environment

Background

Science was not the only area where Islamic knowledge played a significant role in the development of European Society. Many traditional economic concepts had their roots in the early days of the Golden Age of Islam. The idea of taxing certain goods, such as harvest for distribution to the needy was an idea that developed out of the Islamic world. Islamic jurisprudence also played a key role in the development of European law, as we know it today (Roy 132).

Islamic law played a key role in the development of formal economic systems that are still in place today. For instance, Islamic law was developed in areas that are similar to contracts and torts. These laws laid the foundation for an economic system in which all participants were treated more fairly. This fairness was a result of the idea in the Koran that the flow of money and goods needed to be purified by more equal distribution. In accordance with the laws of Islam, the caliphate became one of the first welfare states (Crone 308-309). The idea of charity became an important concept and interest loans were discouraged. One example of this occurred when the Prophet instituted economic policies that included disallowing permanent buildings in the market of Medina in the abolition of rents for setting up a stand (Bonner 391-406). It is suggested that by this action the Prophet was giving the poor an equal chance to compete with more wealthy merchants. The economic system stressed fairness in lending and borrowing. The system was designed so that no one would be taken advantage of.

The economic system of the Islamic Golden Age saw the development of certain organized trades. Technology led to the development of these trades, which had a reciprocal effect on the development of the economy. This era saw the development of a thriving perfume industry. Chemical glazes were developed to help them compete with the Chinese ceramic industry. The system relied on the merchants who would buy and sell on commission. The merchants bought their goods with money from investors were joint ventures. In the spirit of diversity, partnerships often involved Muslims, Christians, in Jewish Partners. The merchant class was not restricted to only Muslims. Kinship bonds also played a role in the development partnerships and allowed trade to occur over vast differences. International trade developed in the emergence of the banking system that allowed the check to be drawn in Baghdad and cashed in Morocco (Peters 125). A world banking system was established.

The Islamic Golden Age saw the development of one of the most extensive trade networks. Muslim traders were active explores and traveled over most of the Old World (Hobson 29-30), they extended into the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and China Sea (Labib 79-96). The Arabs silver coins were accepted through most of Africa and Europe and could be used to buy goods or slaves (Kovalev and Kaelin 560-580). These factors helped establish Islamic empire as a leading economic power from the seventh to 13th centuries (Hobson 29-30).

The accounting profession also grew during the Islamic Golden Age. The concepts of checks, promissory notes, trusts, loans, ledgers, and organizational enterprises that were sent from the state were developed (Banaji 47-74). Merchant capitalism came into being during this time, but industry failed to thrive after the concept of landowners came into existence (Tucker 31-32). These practices also later spread to Europe and eventually became the complex economy that we know today.

The 11th to 13th centuries also is brought the development of a cartel. The cartel consisted of Muslim merchants, as well as those from Yemeni, Egyptian, and India (Postan and Miller 438-440). They were known as the "Kharimas" in came to dominate much of the economy of the Islamic world (Labib 79-96). They controlled the trade routes, financing methods, and amassed considerable wealth. They mined gold and catered to the extreme wealthy class with their goods and services.

The Islamic golden age saw an agricultural revolution that was necessitated by a growing population levels and the distribution of the labour force (Watson). Trade routes were established, which allowed the movement of agricultural goods to most parts of Africa, Europe, and for some products, Asia. The population dynamics changed with better food and advances in medicine. The average lifespan in the Islamic world exceeded that of the population in the world significantly. The life expectancy of Islamic scholars was between 69 and 75 years old, but most of the population in the labour class was about half that (Shatzmiller 63-66).

The Islamic world had one of the highest literacy rates in all of the world due to the introduction of state subsidized education as early as the 11th century (Coulson 117). This led to a flourishing of ideas in the Qu'ran, and flourishing commercial activity (Burke 165-186). The educational system was a key component of the advancement of the Islamic Golden Age. Overall, these advances led to a higher quality of life for those in the Islamic world.

Higher education led to engineering advancements such as tide mills, wind power, the emergence of fossil fuels and petroleum. These advances led to the development of fulling mills, gristmills, ship mills, steel mills, windmills, and sawmills (Lucas 1-30). Many of these processes had been driven by manual labour in the past. These industrial advances allowed the production of more goods to be distributed to a greater number of people. It also led to the emergence of the labour class which now had more money to spend on the goods being produced. They became inactive participant in the economy.

The advancement of industry led to increases in the amounts and types of goods being produced. The agricultural and handicraft portions of this society also experienced rapid growth as an offshoot of mass industrial growth (Labib 79-96). The tax collected from all of this industrialization began to be invested in the expansion of industry, rather than being wasted on Temples and personal wealth of leaders. Privately owned enterprises also began to follow suit and invest some of the profits into the growth of industry, rather than padding the landowner's pockets (Shatzmiller 47-48). This was a new idea in economic thought, but these new ideas were not considered stable until many years later (Spengler 274). Common interest directed cooperative efforts with the optimal perfection of society (Hosseini 39). The complexity of economic instruments continued to grow with every technological advance in the industrial movement.