Culturally Relevant Teaching and Literacy Development

Impact of Culturally Relevant Teaching on Literacy Development of African American Students in Urban Education
Culturally Relevant Teaching and Literacy Development
Culturally relevant pedagogy has emerged as one of the interventions to help enhance the learning outcomes of different student populations. The concept emerged from reform initiatives of educational programs across the country, which have contributed to the development of various educational interventions and programs. Ladson-Billings (1995) developed this concept and define it as the inclusion of aspects of the students’ cultural environment in the arrangement of and instruction in the classroom. Culturally relevant pedagogy could play an important role in student engagement and achievement in the modern learning environment.
Byrd (2016) contends that culturally relevant teaching is a potent intervention and strategy for lessening achievement gaps and improving student engagement and achievement. While culturally relevant pedagogy could help lessen gaps in student achievement, today’s learning environment is still characterized by disparities in student outcomes. The academic outcomes of African American students are significantly lower than Latino, White, and Asian American students in both special and general education classrooms. The study demonstrates that culturally relevant pedagogy should be adopted in urban educational settings for literacy development of African American students.
Problem Statement
Since 1980s, the learning environment in the United States has continued to experience changes including demographic changes brought by the significant increase in the number of babies born to minority group members. Currently, the learning environment comprises students from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. The number of minorities in today’s classroom has continued to increase rapidly in recent years though the majority of student populations and teachers are Whites. African American students account for more than 16.5% of student population in general education classrooms and 28.7% of special education classrooms (Howard, 2001). On the other hand, African American teachers account for only 6% of the teaching population across the country (Howard, 2001).
African Americans account for a significant percentage of modern student populations. As a result, American teachers face new demands and need to adopt teaching practices and instructional strategies that meet the learning needs and styles of all students, particularly Black students. As the number of Black students in the modern classroom increases, the discrepancy in academic performance continues to widen. Efforts by educators and other stakeholders to enhance the academic outcomes of all students have been relatively ineffective because of the disparities in academic performance.
The U.S. public system has witnessed a growing increase in the discrepancy in student academic performance as certain groups are more likely to excel than others. Howard & Terry Sr. (2011) contend that African American students continue to lag behind in their academic performance compared to other student populations like Asian American, White, and Latino students. In essence, Black students are disproportionately affected by the current approaches to learning adopted in the classroom as evident in their relatively poor academic performance in comparison to other student groups. African American students in urban settings perform are less likely to excel in academics in comparison to other student groups. Despite learning in urban settings, 52% of African American students come from rural areas with single parent homes and 62% are from low-income families (Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth, 2014). Therefore, their experiences living in rural settings and communities seemingly affect their literacy development even when placed in urban learning environments. The gap in academic performance is an indicator of systematic racism existing within the school system. A review of existing literature and surveys on academic performance shows this discrepancy.
Review of Existing Literature
The discrepancy in the academic outcomes among different student populations has been the subject of numerous studies in the recent past. Existing studies have examined this issue from different perspectives including the potential causes of the achievement gaps and how they can be addressed. Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth (2014) identify cultural factors as one of the major factors contributing to achievement gaps between African American and White students. African American students have different communication patterns that affect their socialization and learning. These cultural factors shape their learning needs and affect their learning styles, especially when placed in a diverse classroom. According to Ladson-Billings (1995), African Americans’ learning and academic achievement is affected by their home and community cultures. Language interaction patterns in their home and community settings influence their socialization, which in turn shapes learning and academic achievement.
Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth (2014) further suggests that current approaches to learning in the classroom and discrepancies in the cultural background between teachers and students contribute to achievement gaps. Current approaches to learning do not adequately consider the diverse cultures of these students. For example, teachers do not consider the language interaction and communication of African American students when developing teaching approaches. Additionally, the differences in the cultural background between teachers and students make it difficult for educators to adopt teaching approaches that address the needs of these students (Gay, 2010). Scholars in the field of education have conducted studies to examine this issue as it has gained the attention of policymakers and other relevant stakeholders.
Cultural Factors in Student Achievement
As evidenced in existing literature, the discrepancy in the academic performance between different student populations is attributable to various factors. Cultural differences are seen as one of the major contributing factors towards the poor academic performance of African American students. Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth (2014) contend that African Americans generally have a unique communication pattern that is not similar to the patterns adopted in most classrooms. The unique communication patterns, Ebonics = Ebony Phonics (African American English), in some way, have contributed to the lack of communication between teachers and students, which is brought by the different cultural backgrounds of the individuals. The cultural backgrounds of teachers and students differ in terms of their communication patterns, socialization, and language interaction patterns. These differences affect communication in the classroom and how students understand what they are taught. Together with race and socioeconomics, culture generates tensions among teachers and students in different areas including academic achievement.
While conducting research on the Effects of Culturally Relevant Teaching on Seventh Grade African American Students, Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth (2014), estimated that nearly 49% of African American children live in rural communities while 62% live in low-income families (Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth, 2014). In addition, approximately 52% of African American children live in single-parent homes in rural settings. The living conditions of these children shape their cultural practices and communication patterns in the classroom. Given their experiences in rural settings, African American students have different communication patterns and cultural practices that affect their learning and academic achievement. Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth (2014) seemingly suggest that rural settings affect the learning and achievement of African Americans by shaping their communication patterns. Communication patterns and cultural practices impact their learning abilities by shaping how these children understand what they are taught in the classroom and their interactions with teachers.
According to Miller (2015), African American, Latinos and Asians account for 50.3% of public school students in urban settings. However, while non-White student enrollment has reached majority levels in these schools, gaps in educational achievement still persist. Miller (2015) suggest that the significant increase in the number of African American students in urban classrooms is yet to address achievement gaps because of teaching strategies adopted in these settings. Pedagogical ideologies and strategies adopted in urban classrooms do not adequately support the needs of African American students, particularly females in STEM educational pathways. In concurrence, Byrd (2016) suggests that urban educational settings do not provide cultural socialization opportunities for African Americans to learn about their own culture in school. Consequently, teaching strategies and approaches in these settings fail to support and encourage African American students resulting in discrepancies in achievement.
Ladson-Billings (1995) suggests that home and community cultures of African American students have significant impact on their learning and academic success in schools. Teacher-student interactions and participation structures demonstrate a strong link between culture and academic achievement. For example, teachers who utilize language interaction patterns that are linked to the students’ home cultural patterns facilitate improved student academic performance.
In concurrence, Howard & Terry Sr. (2011) state that the incorporation of cultural aspects in instructional strategies has been found to have positive impacts on the learning and academic achievement of students of color. According to Gay (2010), African American students are disproportionately assigned to special education since teachers/educators do not have knowledge regarding their socialization and cultural values. This in turn contributes to the relatively poor academic performance of these students by affecting their learning behaviors.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Student Achievement
The concept of culturally relevant pedagogy was developed in 1995 by Gloria Ladson-Billing whose landmark article has acted as a coherent theoretical statement for this approach to teaching (Paris, 2012). This concept was developed following insights obtained from the experiences and outcomes associated with teaching and learning using an approach that is relevant and responsive to cultural practices, literacies, and languages of students (Ladson-Billings, 1995). The concept was developed on grounds that pedagogy should be a major focus of the investigation into measures to enhance education, diversity, and equity.
Culturally relevant pedagogy emerged as an effective means for the reformation of teacher education instead of programmatic reform that characterized are teacher education programs across the United States. Programmatic reform refers to initiatives that seek to change educational programs in order to enhance student achievement (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Culturally relevant pedagogy is different as it focuses on the teaching strategy and seeks to promote and foster literate, linguistic, and cultural pluralism as part of teaching (Paris, 2012). It was influenced by the work of anthropologists who examined suitable ways in which teaching can mimic the home and community cultures of black students. Some of these anthropologists include Au and Jordan who examined the pedagogy of teachers in a Hawaiian school in 1981 and Mohatt and Erickson who carried out similar work among Native American students (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Culturally relevant pedagogy seeks to promote and foster cultural, linguistic, and literate pluralism as part of a school’s democratic project (Paris, 2012). This approach helps teachers to effectively respond to the multiethnic and multilingual classroom environment. Culturally-relevant pedagogy is rooted in the strong link between teaching and culture as suggested by Ladson-Billings (1995). This link becomes the premise upon which this instructional approach enhances student learning and achievement. In an increasingly, multiethnic and multilingual modern classroom environment, culturally relevant pedagogy enhances teacher-student interaction and increases student engagement in the learning process.
Gay (2010) suggests that the educational quality of these students can be improved significantly by adopting instructional practices and programs that reflect their cultural perspectives, heritages, and experiences (Gay, 2010). Therefore, culturally responsive teaching is viewed as an approach that could help improve their learning behaviors, experiences, and outcomes. Howard & Terry Sr. (2011) contend that culturally responsive teaching has been touted to be a teaching approach that could overturn the persistent poor academic performance of these students.
According to Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth (2014), culturally relevant pedagogy contributed to improved student learning and achievement by enhancing teachers’ cultural awareness. This instructional strategy or approach does not require teachers to essentially be culturally proficient or competent in order to be effective in satisfying the cultural needs of their students. Once teachers become culturally aware, they will be able to communicate with their students of color in an effective manner that increases their achievement in different subject areas such as science (Paulk, Martinez & Lambeth, 2014).
Byrd (2016) reminds us that elements of culturally relevant pedagogy have proven essential in improving student achievement and engagement, which in turn lessens achievement gaps. This implies that culturally relevant pedagogy is linked to positive academic outcomes and experiences that are relevant in today’s educational settings. Culturally relevant teaching incorporates cultural awareness and other elements that are critical in improving ethnic-racial identity development and student learning and achievement. Consequently, without culturally relevant teaching, education and learning can never be the best it should be for students, especially those who are not part of the mainstream or majority of the society, communities, and schools (Gay, 2010).
Discussion
Existing literature provides significant insights into the role culturally relevant pedagogy plays in enhancing student learning and achievement. Some of these insights include improved teacher-student interaction, enhanced cultural awareness by teachers, and use of teaching approaches that cater for the needs of all students. Culturally relevant pedagogy enables teachers to connect better with their students and thus increase their engagement. As evident in existing literature, discrepancies in student achievement continue to exist in the United States despite numerous efforts and measures undertaken to enhance learning. African Americans and other minorities are disproportionately affected by current teaching or instructional strategies. These strategies fail to effectively integrate cultural aspects in the learning process and inadvertently affect African American students by contributing to poor academic achievement in comparison to other student groups or populations. In this regard, cultural elements should be incorporated in teaching practice to help meet the diverse needs of students in an increasingly multiethnic and multilingual modern learning environment.
Culturally relevant pedagogy is a suitable intervention that can help improve teaching practice and contribute to better student achievement. The integration of cultural elements and cultural awareness in the teaching process has been found to enhance the learning experiences and outcomes of African American students. As Woodly (2018) eloquently communicated in his book MC Means Move the Class: How to Spark Engagement and Motivation in Urban and Culturally Diverse Classrooms, we, teachers, are responsible for being the catalyst of change, the motivator of equality, and the facilitator of an experience in the classroom. The robust experiences in a classroom is dependent upon one’s abilities to curate cultural knowledge of the students you serve, provide culturally relevant curriculum, deliver rigorous, intentional instruction, and utilize cultural opportunities to pilot lesson plan standards and objectives off the ground – in order to maximize the students’ learning experience.
Culturally relevant pedagogy improves the learning and academic achievement of students by enhancing cultural awareness among teachers. Once teachers become culturally aware, they utilize suitable communication tools and strategies that mimic the home and community culture of African American students. As a result, these student increase their engagement in the learning process, which leads to better learning experiences and improved achievement. Therefore, culturally relevant pedagogy should be adopted in urban educational settings to help reduce achievement gaps among African American students. The adoption of culturally relevant pedagogy in urban schools is essential because of the significant increase of non-White school enrollment to majority levels in these settings (Miller, 2015). This would help address discrepancies in achievement as the number of non-White students in urban classrooms continue to increase substantially. In essence, the adoption of culturally relevant pedagogy will help ensure that urban educational settings are better prepared to support the learning and academic achievements of the growing non-White student population. Culturally relevant pedagogy would help enhance non-White student achievement in urban schools by acting as a bridge between home and school cultures. It will enable teachers to incorporate the perspectives, experiences and values of students’ cultures into the curriculum (Esposito & Swain, 2009).
In conclusion, the modern learning environment is characterized by the emergence of different student populations. While a significant portion of teacher and student populations in American schools are Whites, the number of minorities like African American students has increased rapidly in recent years. Teachers face the need to adopt teaching/instructional strategies that cater to the diverse needs of these students. As the number of African American students continue to increase, achievement gaps continue to widen. Culturally relevant pedagogy is a suitable intervention that could help reduce these gaps and promote literacy development among African American students.


References
Byrd, C.M. (2016, July 25). Does Culturally Relevant Teaching Work? An Examination From Student Perspectives. SAGE Open, 6(3), 1-10.
This article examines the impact of culturally relevant pedagogy based on the perspectives of African American students. The findings of this study were used to understand the views and opinions of African American students regarding the use of culturally relevant teaching practices.
Esposito, J. & Swain, A.N. (2009). Pathways to Social Justice: Urban Teachers’ Uses of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy as a Conduit for Teaching for Social Justice. Perspectives on Urban Education, 38-48.
The authors examine the role culturally relevant pedagogy can play as a tool for teaching social justice in urban schools. The findings of the study were used to demonstrate the significance of adopting culturally relevant pedagogy to enhance literacy development among African American students in urban schools.
Gay, G. (2010, November 25). Culturally Responsive Teaching in Special Education for Ethnically Diverse Students: Setting the Stage. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 15(6), 613-629.
The authors examine the role of culturally responsive teaching in multiethnic special education settings. Insights from this study were used in the current research to demonstrate how culturally responsive teaching should be part of mainstream schools including urban educational settings.
Howard, T.C. (2001, March). Powerful Pedagogy for African American Students: A Case of Four Teachers. Urban Education, 36(2), 179-202.
Using a case study of four elementary school teachers of African American students in urban settings, the study examines the most suitable pedagogical practices employed in the classroom. The study’s findings were used to examine the role culture plays in the process of learning and promoting student achievement.
Howard, T. & Terry Sr., C.L. (2011, October 19). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy for African American Students: Promising Programs and Practices for Enhanced Academic Performance. Teaching Education, 22(4), 345-362.
The article demonstrates the findings of a three-year study on interventions used to enhance college enrollment of African American students. It demonstrates that cultural responsive pedagogy is a suitable approach to enhance student engagement and achievement of African American students. It’s findings were used to demonstrate how culturally relevant teaching can be used to reduce the persistent achievement gaps between African American students and others.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a Theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491.
This article provides a theoretical basis for the concept of culturally relevant teaching as a suitable approach for multiethnic and multilingual classrooms. The authors demonstrate how this concept was developed based on the strong link between teaching and culture. The article was used to provide an overview of the concept of culturally relevant pedagogy.
Miller, B.A.K. (2015, September 28). Effective Teachers: Culturally Relevant Teaching From the Voices of Afro-Caribbean Immigrant Females in STEM. SAGE Open, 5(3), 1-14.
This study examines educational strategies that can be employed to help support African American female students in their pursuit of STEM education and careers. Its findings were used to demonstrate the role of culturally relevant pedagogy in urban educational settings.
Paris, D. (2012, March 29). Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy: A Needed Change in Stance, Terminology, and Practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), 93-97.
The article argue the case for the use of culturally sustaining pedagogy in current teaching practice. The findings of this article were used to provide an overview of this concept and demonstrate its role and significance in teaching.
Paulk, S.M., Martinez, J. & Lambeth, D.T. (2014). Effects of Culturally Relevant Teaching on Seventh Grade African American Students. The Journal of Middle Level Education in Texas, 1(1), 37-60.
The authors explore the link between culturally relevant pedagogy and science achievement of seventh grade African American students. This relationship is examined in comparison to standards-based instruction. The findings of this article were used to explore how culturally relevant pedagogy shapes student participation and achievement.
Woodly, Shaundau. MC Means Move the Class: How to Spark Engagement and Motivation in Urban and Culturally Diverse Classrooms. Ideal Education Consulting, LLC, 2018.