Developmental Aging Through the Cognitive

Developmental Aging Through the Cognitive Process Aging is defined by the Merck Manual of Geriatrics as "a process of gradual and spontaneous change resulting in maturation through childhood, puberty, and young adulthood and then decline through middle and late age." Aging is a subject that affects the individual both in thought and fact with many mixed feelings and emotions.

First there are positive aspects to the process of aging such as the gaining of wisdom and experience but there are those effects such as gray hair, baldness and memory loss that are negative in nature and not desired as that of experience for the human being. Senescence which is defined by Merck Manual of Geriatrics as "The process by which the capacity for cell division, growth, and function is lost over time, ultimately leading to an incompatibility with life, i.e.

The process of senescence terminates in death," Merck states that the differentiation of that which is termed 'normal aging' and 'successful aging' is useful in defining certain aspects of the aging process. There may be other mechanisms involved in senescence other than telemetries shortening such as messenger RNA transfers from senescent cells in to younger cells effectuate the stopping of division in the younger cells.

Many aspects of the aging process can be effectively dealt with in the initiative to keep the person who is older active and interested in life. However, without focus of activities and social interaction the elderly individual will become withdrawn and depressed. Developmental Aging through the Cognitive Process Purpose The purpose of this study is to research aging from the aspect of cognitive development, which will include all aspect of adult development including theory and research.

This work will be from the view of a cognitive cohorts aspect inclusive of case studies, which state that this is from both the male and female perspective. Phases of Development will be inclusive of mental, physical and emotional changes experienced by the aging individual. The three ranges covered in respect to developmental cohorts are those of Middle Age range 40-60 years of age, Older Mature Phase 60-80 years of age and Elder Range of ages 80 and beyond.

Introduction Aging is defined by the Merck Manual of Geriatrics as "a process of gradual and spontaneous change resulting in maturation through childhood, puberty, and young adulthood and then decline through middle and late age." Aging is a subject that affects the individual both in thought and fact with many mixed feelings and emotions.

First there are positive aspects to the process of aging such as the gaining of wisdom and experience but there are those effects such as gray hair, baldness and memory loss that are negative in nature and not desired as that of experience for the human being. Senescence which is defined by Merck Manual of Geriatrics as "The process by which the capacity for cell division, growth, and function is lost over time, ultimately leading to an incompatibility with life, i.e.

The process of senescence terminates in death," Merck states that the differentiation of that which is termed 'normal aging' and 'successful aging' is useful in defining certain aspects of the aging process. Normal aging is that which refers to the common factors, diseases as well as impairments characterizing the elderly population.

It is important to note that the aging group of human beings age at different rates as well as acquiring different diseases and impairments and some remaining so healthy that when they do decease they can be said to have died of nothing other than simply "old age.

Successful or Healthy Aging references a process "to a process by which deleterious effects are minimized, preserving function until senescence makes continued life impossible." (Merck Manual of Geriatrics, 2005) the stated concept of that referred to as successful aging." Successful aging then is the view that aging that is not accompanied by debilitating disease and disability. Although the percentage of persons and the proportion of the elderly have increased in the U.S. The number or percentage of elderly that reside in nursing home facilities has decreased by 5.2%. A.

Disease and Aging Aging and senescence are both witness to a decline in physiological functions however normal decline is not thought of as anything other than a 'normal decline. Cognitive decline is said to be experienced on a 'universal' basis along with advanced age and is within the scope of normal aging but cognitive decline is stated to be 'consistent with dementia even though it is common in the later part of an individual's life.

Alzheimer disease is a "pathological process distinct from normal aging, a conclusion that is supported through analysis of brain tissue at autopsy" (Merck Manual of Geriatrics, 2005) B. Life Span The life span refers to the average number of years that an individual is expected to live under normal conditions the maximum life span for women is sated to be approximately 125 years (Merck Manual of Geriatrics 2005) for women and somewhat shorter for men.

The factors that affect longevity are stated to be hereditary aspects that are determinative in terms of the likelihood of an individual contracting disease or inheriting other medical conditions. C. Molecular/Cellular Changes in Aging Unless they become cancerous cells eventually lose the ability to divide which limits the replicative capacity of cells. Cells that have divided so many times that they are rendered unable to again divide will enlarge and exist for a while before dying.

The reason for the cells becoming unable to divide themselves is understood within the explanation of the DNA process. DNA contains Telomeres at the end of chromosomes that serve as a sort of handle for the movement of chromosome during the telophase of meiosis. These telomeres are shortened each time the cell divides and when they become too short the cells lose the ability to divide.

When the cells are transformed into cancerous type cells the enzyme telomeres lengthen are telophase and the telomeres of the cells that have been transformed do not any longer shorten at cell division making the cells immortal. (Merck Manual of Geriatrics). There may be other mechanisms involved in senescence other than telemetries shortening such as messenger RNA transfers from senescent cells in to younger cells effectuate the stopping of division in the younger cells.

Necrosis or apoptosis may also occur from cell death generally brought about because of chemical or physical insult as they "overwhelm normal cellular processes and make the cells become nonviable." (Merck Manual of Geriatrics, 2005) Neocrosis is defined as a "purely entropic phenomenon due to loss of the cell's ability to transform external energy." (Merck Manual of Geriatrics, 2005) Apoptosis is defined as a "highly regulated and orderly process by which a cell effectively commits suicide." (Merck Manual of Geriatrics, 2005) Apoptosis is said to have been linked to several disease that are age-related such as Alzheimer's disease.

C. Aging Theories Aging has many different variables and occurs at rates that are different among individuals and among species. Senescence is viewed by gerontologists as a "collection of degenerative entropic processes related only by the fact that the occurrence is over a period of time.

One theory is the "Loose Cannon Theory" which proposes that an entropy-producing agent-free radical or glucose disrupts cellular macromolecular constituents over a period of time." Another theory, the "Rate of Living Theory" proposes that smaller animals have higher metabolic rates and therefore tend to decease at a younger age than mammals that are larger.

The "Weak Link Theory" proposes that a physiologic system which is specific to the neuroendocrine or immunological system is more so vulnerable during senescence and upon failing of this system speeds up the function of the entire body. The "Error Catastrophe Theory" proposes that DNA or RNA errors of transcription lead to genetic-based errors that promote senescence and data suggests that organisms that are older have managed to altered proteins that reflects this type genetic changes. The "Master Clock Theory" proposes that aging I under direct genetic control.

This theory is said to be the oldest of all theories and is no longer considered a viable theory. The fact is that whatever actually controls the process of aging is as of yet unknown. D. Accelerated Aging Diseases Progeroid Syndromes are rare diseases which exhibit several features that are similar to the disease normally observed in the elderly population which include baldness, osteoporosis, as well as dry and wrinkled skin." Other syndromes are those as follows: Werner's Syndrome -This syndrome produces sclerodermal skin changes as well as baldness.

Also produced are premature cataracts, muscular atrophy, glucose intolerance, a high incidence of cancer and early death attributable to arteriosclerosis. Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch Syndrome - Also produces premature scleroderma, baldness and other senile pathologies in children. The genetic basis is yet undetermined. Hutchinson-Gilford Syndrome - Also produces premature scleroderma, baldness and other senile pathologies in children. The genetic basis is yet undetermined. Down Syndrome - This syndrome is more commonplace that are the propertied syndromes.

This syndrome also produced pathologies that are typical of senescence inclusive of glucose intolerance, vascular disease as well as a high incidence of hair loss, degenerative bone disease and premature death. The central nervous system is impaired generally producing retardation as well as accelerating the accretion of neurotic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. Chromosome 21 mutations have been implicated in Alzheimer's disease but the specific gene related to Down Syndrome is yet undetermined. E.

Developmental Psychological Aspects of Aging The study of developmental psychology is focused on the changes of individuals over passage of time as well as the processes that bring about those changes. There are two main processes that cause individuals to changes during their lifetimes are 1) maturation; and 2) learning. Maturation is defined as the developmental changes that occur as a result of the aging process. Maturation information is said to be encoded in the genes of an individual.

Learning is a change that is relatively permanent as to behavioral change, which results due to practice or experience. F. Developmental Cohorts Cohorts are groups of people who share similar life experiences for example age differences among groups of people who are different ages could be the result from cohort differences, which is due to cultural and historical factors in growing up or development. G.

Facts of Aging Stated facts of aging include the fact that the body reaches its' peak efficiency at the age of 30 and then begins its' decline.

According to Graham (2005) "Using age 20 as reflective of 100% performance" the following is seen: Pumping efficiency of the heart is reduced about 20% when a person reaches Kidney function is reduced about 25% at 55 years of age Maximum breathing capacity declines about 40% by age 55 and 60$ by age 75 Basal metabolism rate goes down about 10% The average life span has been significantly lengthened to what could be a lifespan of 140 years Thirty percent of individuals that are older than 85 years of age that succumb to minor injuries or sickness that when they were younger would not phase them but due to advanced age and the weakness of the immune system they cannot withstand the sickness that they were able to withstand in younger years.

Cancer is stated to account for 30% of deaths among people in the age range from 65 to 69 and kill 12% of those over the age of 80 The older an individual the slower the growth of cancer. Deaths due to coronary disease are 80% in the over -65-age group. Life expectancy is presently76 years of age when in 1900 the life expectancy was 47 years of age. 13,500 deaths occurred from heart attacks alone last year.

Stroke patients under the age of 65 years are in the number of 28% with 40% stroke patients being women Hypertension is the most consistent powerful predictor of stroke and factors n 70% of all strokes. H. Cognitive Development The last areas of the brain to complete development which causes the cognitive development of humans to be behind the physical ability development. The desire to understand the world behind us is that which drives cognitive development.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, attained his PhD at the young age of 21 and worked at Alfred Binet's school laboratory which was the place of the first testing of intellectual abilities was developed. Piaget was intrigued at how children answered questions incorrectly and through studies of his own children expanded the studies to larger groups of kids making a name for himself in the U.S. By the 1960's although he was known throughout Europe since the decade of the thirties.

Piaget proposed that people create mental models or schemas about how the world works. Also postulated by Piaget are two general processes governing schema change which are: Assimilation - Putting new things into old models or schemas. Accommodation - Modification of existing models or schemas to fit new experiences. Piaget, Erickson and Maslow I.

Piaget Theorist: Four-Stages of Human Cognitive Development According to the theories of Piaget there are four stages of human cognitive development suggesting that the stages occur in what he called an "invariant developmental sequence' and suggested as well that the exact ages that children develop and move up to the next stage differ from one child to another. The four-stages of the theory of Piaget are those of: 1) Sensor motor (birth to 2 years) - the first responses that infants make in the world occur by chance.

It is only between the ages of 8 and 12 months that infants start to intentionally make actions and it is at this stage that problem-solving behaviors appear and the performance of action as means to a foreseen end are performed. 'Imitation ability' first appears at this stage. Object permanence is also a part of the sensor motor stage.

In the start of development once an object is placed out of sight the object is gone from the point-of-view of the infant but they do gradually come to know that there is object permanence. 2) Preoperational stage (2 to 6 years) - an infant begins life as egocentrics, in that they are unable to see from another's viewpoint. Conservation is a notion that children acquire through learning. In the start their judgment of objects is based on their size and no on the content.

Children don't distinguish between reality and looks at this point. 3) Concrete Operations (7 years to 12 years) - the proposal of Piaget was that children's thinking begins on a mental level at this stage. 4) Formal Operations (12 years onward) - During this stage the ability to reason on a formal and abstract basis in relation to things that are purely abstract and symbolic in nature. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning can be used in the systematic solution of problems and it is suggested that this reasoning is used in science. II.

Maslow's Theory of Personality & Hierarchy of Needs The theory of Abraham Maslow called the theory of personality has impacted several fields. Maslow is a humanistic psychologist holding that humans are not pulled and pushed by mechanical forces. The focus of the humanist is upon potentials. Maslow also set out the hierarchic theory of needs which are instinctual based on five levels of basic needs which are: Physiological needs, Safety needs Needs of love, affection and belongingness Needs for Esteem; and Needs for Self-Actualization. III.

Gardner's Eight Forms of Intelligence are stated to be as follows: Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Bodily Kinesthetic Interpersonal Naturalistic Developmental Aging through the Cognitive Process Literature Review According to Dr. Luigi Ferrucci, a geriatrician and epidemiologist who conducts research in relation to cognitive decline in older individuals. According to Dr. Ferrucci, "Aging is accompanied by a global susceptibility for a number of different diseases and functional decline that cannot be readily assessed by the currently available approaches.

However, the mechanism leads to such a susceptibility to disease and disability in the elderly is poorly understood. (Ferrucci, 2005) Ferruci (2005) states that the link between "aging, morbidity and disability is to examine such a relationship in the context of longitudinal studies." According to Ferruci it is commonly accepted knowledge among practitioners that the functions of physical and cognitive are those which are predictors of mortality and this is of a strong nature.

It is believed that the elderly are susceptible to sickness in the form of acute and chronic disease as well as the likelihood to be affected by multiple conditions.

Historically the frailty experienced by the elderly has been considered to be definitive of a 'severely disabling condition' however Ferrucci states that in the study of frailty a different approach was taken in defining frailty as "a dynamic process that becomes evident earlier in life, when specific interventions are more likely to be effective." (Ferrucci, 2005) in a study conducted by Ferrucci and developmental cohorts it was found that fifty-percent of the elderly population has disability resulting from an acute catastrophic event that in a very short stretch of time leads to the individual being severely disabled in their daily living activities.

Furthermore, the remaining fifty-percent experience disability as a slow-developing progressive disabler in their lives.

In a recent study conducted in the design of the InCHIANTI study the model in which mobility problems caused from impairments were grouped into six main subcategories which are: Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Perceptual System Muscles Bones & Joints Energy Production and Delivery Preliminary data gives suggestion that "two main predictors of poor lower extremity performance are the reduction of muscle power and dysfunctions of the central nervous system showing as well that many complex interactions between the anatomical integrity and functionality of the different subsystems.

(Ferrucci, 2005) Because the behavioral environment is conditioned very strongly by physical and cognitive function which both require the integrity and functionality of multiple physiological systems resulting in reduction of physical and cognitive function it is important to understand that this reduction is generally the result of multivariate factors which may very well be co-existing causes.

(Ferrucci, 2005) Current research in relation to cognition and aging reported by the National Research Council in a report entitled "The Aging Mind" a strong case is constructed by Stern & Carstensen (2000) in examination of the impact of aging upon cognition contextually speaking. It is yet unclear how assessments in laboratories of functioning map onto everyday situational performance. The relationship between age and performance is not conclusive because of the fact that elderly individuals demonstrate high-levels of cognitive skills.

The aim within the project conducted by the National Research Council in relation to cognition and aging was for the purpose of examining adult age differences in representations about the social world and to understand how those representations influence the judgment and decision processes. The conceptual model that was stated to use in guiding the proposed research is based on three propositions which are general in relation to aging and social-cognitive functioning.

Stated is that: First, aging is accompanied by declines in the efficiency of controlled processing mechanisms associated with working memory, as reflected in the ability to initiate and control processing and to monitor such processing and products. Second, changes in life circumstances and in physical, psychological, and social resources later personal goals, which in turn influence the nature of processing and the expenditure of cognitive resources.

(NCSU, 2005) The Physiological Signs of Aging The changes experienced, as one grows older are those of physiological changes which touch many aspects of the lives of the aging population. Changes are experienced differently by individuals and while some experience the changes as something that occurs rapidly others will experience the changes as a slow process. Approximately 85% of older adult individuals experience chronic type symptoms while others or approximately 20% experience significant functional impairment. Outward Signs of Aging Psychosocial Treatment is vital in Alzheimer's Disease Treatment.

Psychological techniques that have been developed for use in patients with cognitive impairment may be helpful in Alzheimer's disease. Preparation and strengthening of methods of dealing with cognitive loss may reduce limitations on a functional level for those with Alzheimers in early stages before compromise of multiple systems of the brain occur. Suggested memory aids such as mnemonics, computerized recall devices or copious use of note taking may be helpful to those experiencing the stage of mild dementia Behavioral symptoms experienced with Alzheimers Disease are: 1. Depression 2. Anxiety 3.

Aggressive behavior Stated is that: Cognitive therapy, seen as more promising for the early stages of dementia, strives to help patients cope with depression by reducing cognitive distortions and by fostering more adaptive perceptions. Behavioral therapy, seen as more promising for more moderately or severely affected adults with dementia, targets family caregivers directly -- "and patients indirectly -- "by helping caregivers identify, plan, and increase pleasant activities for the patient, such as taking a walk, designed to improve their mood." (Teri & Gallagher-Thompson, 1991).

Elderly individuals can learn to contribute to the community in spite of physiologic changes brought on by aging and increasingly burdensome health problems. The continued intellectual, social and physical activity throughout the individual's life cycle are crucial for maintenance of mental health in the later years of life. Persistent depression or bereavement is not normal and should be treated. Furthermore, normal aging characteristics do not include mental or cognitive disorders.

Adult Developmental Stages The stages of adult development have been identified in relation to the stages of an individual's life on a realistic basis in assisting that person. The groups consist of the following stages/phases in growing older which are the stated stages of growth for the purpose of this working writing: Middle Age (40-60) Older Mature (60-80) Elderly (Beyond 80) Middle Age (40-50) The stage of Middle Age Adults is the time of the 'mid-life' transition. This may occur in the late thirties or the early fifties.

There is no set age for this occurrence but is individually unique for each person transitioning this stage of life. This period marks freedom for some but restraint in the lives of others. While men may view this stage as stressful as they are nearing the highest they will likely ascend in terms of their career while seeing youth falling further and further behind them.

Women on the other hand see this as a time of freedom from the child-rearing burdens and a time in which they can pursue their career and their individual self-expression as never before. This.