Emergency Governmental Powers and the

EMERGENCY GOVERNMENTAL POWERS and the UNDOING of a NATION: EXAMINATION of the ROMAN REPUBLIC'S CHANGE to an IMPERIALIST STATE The government of Rome historically passed through many forms of government including a kingdom, a republic, a dictatorship and an empire. The republic form of government in Rome preceded the Empire or an Imperialist form of government institute under the emperor Augustus in 27 B.C.

FROM REPUBLIC to EMPIRE In 27 BCE Octavian voluntarily gave the Senate his power who in turn reinstituted his power under the name of princes meaning 'leading citizen' and he took the name 'Augustus' meaning 'the revered one'. At this time Augustus held absolute power but in a concealed manner due to the governmental forms in place to conceal what was the beginning of the Roman Empire. While most historians date the beginning of the Roman Empire to 44 B.C.

At the time of the assassination of Caesar, it was long before 44 B.C. that changes instituted into the powers held by Augustus were initiated in a manner that slowly chipped away at the Republic of Rome and in the end turned the Republic into an Empire.

Caesar had previously "outlined a program for the reorganization of the courts, and for the sake of order he increased the penalties for crimes committed by the rich and the poor." (Smitha, 1998) Property rights were upheld by Cesar and plans for economic improvements were laid by Caesar. He allowed Jews to worship Yahweh once again, and in general made great economic improvements in Rome including construction for improving sea trade and harbors. He planned for furthering the public education system in Rome.

The form of government established by Caesar, while near, was not a democracy, which was considered "an unruly form of government." (Smitha, 1998) the privileged class had no understanding "that political improvements would need widespread consensus and respect for the law..." And so they had Casear eliminated by assassination.

Octavian was the grand-nephew of Casear and he came to Rome to serve Casear however, because Octavian was not allied well with the member of the Senate, he let Antony know that he was willing to join in an alliance against those who had murdered Casear. However, unknown to Antony who was in a war against Decimus Brutus, Octavian and his army "marched on Rome, entering the city unopposed.

There, Octavian took charge and in effect annulled the powers of the Senate....and abolished the laws making Antony an outlaw." (Smitha, 1998) Octavian had appointed himself and his second cousin to the newly created seats of consulships. Rome experienced a great buildup of military strength under Octavian who "promised everyone that eventually he would restore the Republic." (Smitha, 1998) Octavian became displeased when Antony, after a victory in Armenia, declared Julius Caesar's son to be his legitimate son and king of Armenia and Media.

"Making Caesar's son by Cleopatra Caesar's legitimate son was equivalent to putting the boy ahead of Octavian, who was merely Caesar's nephew and adopted son. Antony was upset with Octavius because he had given him a share of Sicily. It is stated, "A war of words erupted between the two, with Antony trying to discredit Octavian for what he described as Octavian's past acts of disloyalty." (Smitha, 1998) Upon Octavia's return to Rome, he was "in command of all Rome's sixty legions, and respected the regions by rank and file.

It was believed by the people of Rome that "they had seen the end of war and strife and they hailed him as the Prince of Peace and benefactor of mankind." (Smitha, 1998) it was at this time that the Senate "gave Octavian the permanent title "Commander Imperitor" - from which the English word emperor is derived." (Smitha, 1998) Eventually Octavius now called Augustus set about creating urban fire departments and urban police forces "to suppress disorder, petty crime and to preserve urban tranquility, and he created police for the countryside to protect people against brigandage." (Smitha, 1998) in order to "protect the Roman race" laws were passed by Augustus in order to bring a reduction to inter-breeding between Romans and non-Romans.

Morality became a highly legislated issue in Rome as well. AMERICA: THE NEW ROME Many contemporary writers have recently compared the powers vested in the President of the United States of America, under the heading emergency powers in the Patriot Acts to be all too similar to the changing government in the Republic of Rome.

Nadia Urbinati writes in the work entitled: "The Criticism of Intellectual Critics" that the one thing absolutely not tolerated by democracy is "the suspension of dissent and the politics of secrecy in public issues." (Uribinati, 2002) Clearly, what is being witnessed in today's media and media reports should scare the citizens of the United States. Those who protest peacefully have been arrested. Assembly has been disallowed in many instances and public media personalities have lost their jobs for reporting news that has been viewed negatively by the present administration in Washington.

These powers are much more broad and undefined than the system under which Rome operated. Urbinati specifically states: "In the constitutional tradition of the Roman republic that codified it, dictatorship was defined as much by the criteria that were necessary to institute it as in the form of implementation and ultimately its duration which was carefully specified and limited.

This is not actually the case in America today, which should instead be defined as a true and actual case of the President's arbitrary power." (Urbinati, 2002) Therefore, since no provisions exist in the United States Constitution for regulation of the suspension or violation of the usual procedures "the measures adopted by Mr. Bush are clearly the fruits of an arbitrary decision." (Urbinati, 2002) Johnson (2003) writes that "The collapse of the Roman republic in 27 B.C.

has significance today for the United States, which took its key political principles from its ancient predecessor." (Johnson, 2003) the problem, as noted by Johnson is that: "The Roman republic, however, failed to adjust to the unintended consequences of its imperialism, leading to a drastic alteration in its form of government. The militarism that inescapably accompanied Rome's imperial projects slowly undermined its constitution as well as the very considerable political and human rights its citizens enjoyed.

The American republic, of course, has not yet collapsed; it is just under considerable strain as the imperial presidency -- and its supporting military legions -- undermine Congress and the courts.

However, the Roman outcome -- turning over power to an autocracy backed by military force and welcomed by ordinary citizens because it seemed to bring stability -- suggests what might happen in the years after Bush and his neoconservatives are thrown out of office." (Johnson, 2003) Johnson writes in a 2007 work entitled: "Republic or Empire: A National Intelligence Estimate on the United States" that since the CIA has been prohibited from writing an NIE on the U.S., and since he served in a position proofing the NIE reports between 1967 and 1973, that he is qualified to do so.

Johnson states that the result of the present course taken by Bush and his administration can be viewed in historical terms as evidenced by the history of Rome with that result likely being that the present course "will be a brief one, which most likely will end in economic and political collapse." (2007) the present 'imperial project' of ongoing war has created a "flow of the nation's wealth - from taxpayers and foreign lenders through the government to military contractors and (decreasingly) back.