Environment and Islamic architecture

Environment and Islamic Architecture

As the term implies, "Islamic architecture" is an architectural style that is characterized by functional elements and forms that are inspired by the Islamic religion, and which serves as a framework in which Islamic tenets can be implemented, celebrated and sustained over time. Graceful arabesques, Romanesque horseshoe arches and domes all typify many Islamic architectural styles, but the range and types of buildings that have been included under the umbrella term Islamic architecture in recent years also includes some nontraditional and neo-Islamic architecture as well. Beyond these trends, there has also been a move towards incorporating environmentally friendly elements into Islamic architecture in recent years as well, making a review of these issues a timely and valuable enterprise. To this end, this paper provides the history and an overview of Islamic architecture, the environment and Islam, and the reflection of Islam in architecture. An examination of the reflection of the environment in Islamic architecture is followed by an analysis of salient elements and details of Islamic architecture that are especially useful for Islamic eco-friendly construction. Finally, a summary of the research and important findings concerning these issues and Islamic architecture are provided in the paper's conclusion.

Review and Analysis

History and Overview of Islamic Architecture

Although no universal definition exists for the term, many authorities agree that Islamic architecture can be identified by certain design and construction elements. For instance, according to Omer (2008), "Islamic architecture is an architecture whose functions, and to a lesser extent, forms, are inspired primarily by Islam. Islamic architecture is a framework for the implementation of Islam. It facilitates, fosters and stimulates the Muslims' 'ibadah (worship) activities, and these in turn account for every moment of their lives" (p. 123). In reality, what has been termed "Islamic architecture" has included a disparate group of styles that include secular as well as and religious themes dating to the founding of Islam to the current era (Islamic architecture, 2008). According to contemporary architects, "The principle architectural types of Islamic architecture are; the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for buildings of lesser importance such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture" (Islamic architecture, 2008, p. 2). In Iran, there are two types of buildings, mosques and tombs, that are especially representative of Islamic architecture. According to Peterson, though, "Unfortunately very little survives of Iran's Islamic architecture from before the Seljuk period so that it is difficult to trace the origin of particular building types and their relationship to Islamic architecture elsewhere" (Petersen, 1999, p. 122).

While Islamic architecture has numerous social, religious and environmental influence, the discipline is typically associated with several design elements that have been influenced by the first mosque constructed by Muhammad in Medina, as well as from other pre-Islamic aspects that were modified from churches, temples and synagogues (Islamic architecture, 2008). In addition, Byzantine architecture was highly influential on early Islamic architecture based on the use of round arches, vaults and domes (Islamic architecture, 2008). Other features that typify Islamic architecture include the following:

1. Large courtyards often merged with a central prayer hall (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi).

2. Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur, meaning "light").

3. A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces toward Mecca

4. Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to Mecca. This may have been derived from previous uses of niches for the setting of the torah scrolls in Jewish synagogues or the haikal of Coptic churches.

5. Domes and Cupolas.

6. Iwans to intermediate between different sections.

7. The use of geometric shapes and repetitive art (arabesque).

8. The use of decorative Islamic calligraphy instead of pictures which were haram (forbidden) in mosque architecture); in secular architecture, human and animal representation was commonplace.

9. Central fountains used for ablutions (once used as a wudu area for Muslims).

10. The use of bright color.

11. Focus both on the interior space of a building and the exterior (Islamic architecture, 2008).

Irrespective of its precise influences from place to place and time to time, the essential element of Islamic architecture is its relationship to the Islamic perceptions of God, man, nature, life, death and life after death (Omer, 2008). As a result, Islamic architecture encapsulates the material aspects of life providing a concomitant physical place where the Islamic message can be actualized (Omer, 2008). According to Omer, "Practically speaking, Islamic architecture represents the religion of Islam that has been translated into reality at the hands of the Muslims. It also represents the identity of Islamic culture and civilization" (2008, p. 37). This representation of Islamic culture and civilization is based on the words of the Prophet Mohammed as enshrined in the Koran which cautions against extravagance in building construction. In this regard, the Prophet said, "Every spending is for the sake of Allah, except spending on building, there is no good [or reward] in it'. Abdul Aziz Aba Al-Khail, a well-known and religiously informed Saudi architectural theorist, explains this adith in his study of the interpretation of Islamic architecture in accordance with the Qur'an and sunnah by saying that spending on building is not rewarded if the building is unnecessarily built or exceeds the need of its owner" (Mortada, 2003, p. 17).

In fact, it is contrary to the tenets of Islam to build beyond the needs of the occupants since this would detract from the structure's primary purpose. In this regard, Mortada emphasizes that, "The Islamic prohibition of self-advocating or conceit via exaggerated spending on the house is also driven from the Islamic point-of-view on the purpose of housing. To Islam, the house is to provide shelter from the climate and to secure the necessary privacy and safety. This purpose does not mean that the Muslim should spend large amounts of money on building beautiful houses, concerning himself with matters of secondary importance, such as ornamentation and unnecessary rooms" (2003, p. 17). This dual requirement to glorify the Almighty by promoting excellence in everything, including architectural design, balanced by the need to remain humble and pious, has created a challenge of Islamic architects who want to satisfy both requirements. Despite the challenges that are involved, the payoffs are deemed well worthwhile. As Mortada points out, "Humility in the house is also a manifestation of the Islamic prohibition of indulgence in a luxurious life. The Prophet warned against infatuation with this life and required Muslims to challenge themselves by doing good deeds and avoiding conflicts. Such a warning is essential for social justice and solidarity" (p. 17). Consequently, Muslims that spend too much on their houses are viewed as being violative of Islamic proscriptions against worldly desires and manifestations. In this regard, Mortada adds that, "Indulgence in a luxurious lifestyle undoubtedly has serious effects on the morals and behaviour of individuals, and on society as a whole. Excessive spending is viewed by Islam as an expression of an individual's preoccupation with form rather than substance, with material rather than with spirit" (2003, p. 17).

Notwithstanding these constraints, Islamic architecture has managed to express both the beauty of the environment in which it exists as well as capturing themes that are reflective of the Islamic conceptualizations of religious glory and wonder. It is therefore not surprising that Islamic architecture has been enormously influential in shaping the architecture of Europe, Asia, northern Africa and beyond, but the influential has been mutual. According to Tillinghast, "There is much continuity between Islamic architecture and that of the Christian Middle Ages. Romanesque arches traveled both to the eastern Mediterranean and northwest into pre-Gothic Europe. The great imperial mosques built by the architect Mimar Sinan in Istanbul were modeled on Haghia Sophia, itself a bridge between classical antiquity and medieval Byzantium" (2007, p. 37). In reciprocating the influence, Islamic architectural elements have been incorporated into some of the great buildings of the West. For instance, Tillinghast emphasizes that, "In turn Islamic architecture provided models for the Gothic architecture of late medieval Europe, which began by imitating the Islamic styles traders and crusaders would have seen in Moorish Spain and in the Holy Land" (2007, p. 37).

As noted in the introduction, although all Islamic architecture is unique in some fashion, the genre is characterized by certain architectural elements, including arches and domes. According to Ahmed-Ullah (1998), "Domes play an important role in Islamic architecture" (p. 37). This importance can be discerned from a number of ancient as well as contemporary buildings. For instance, Paquini (2009) reports that, "In Spain, the double radius of the horseshoe arch became one of the recognizable trademarks of Islamic architecture" (p. 119). The influence of Islamic architecture on the Europe of the Middle Ages is especially pronounced. In this regard, Paquini adds that, "Along with painting and sculpture, architecture was one of the primary arts of the Renaissance. An important influence on Renaissance architecture was the Dome of the Rock, famous for its spatial harmony, balance and overall perfection. . . . The Dome of the Rock is basically a Byzantine building [with] classical columns, topped by arches in alternating black and white marble, the dome, and the gold and semi-precious mosaics that decorate the walls all speak of Byzantine heritage" (p. 119).

Some scholars, though, have argued that authentic Islamic architecture essentially ended in 900 C.E., with the sole exception of Egypt, and even in this venue Islamic architectural development all but ceased for a period of four centuries until the middle of the Bahri Mamluk period (Blair & Bloom, 2003). It is important to note, though, that the Mamluk sequence of sultans continued until 1517 and there was ample evidence for a comparable tradition of Islamic architecture in a number of countries besides Egypt (Blair & Bloom, 2003). According to these authorities, "While architecture is as important in Islamic culture as it was in Western Europe or East Asia, visual representation, which plays such an enormous role in the artistic traditions of Europe and Asia, is a relatively minor and limited component of Islamic culture, and sculpture is virtually unknown" (Blair & Bloom, 2003, p. 19). These traditions are also based on scriptural references from the Koran. For example, in Al-Noor Sura, verses 27-8, it is stated that: "O Ye believers, do not enter houses other than yours unless you ask for permission and say the word of peace to the occupants. This is better for you so that you may remember. If you did not find any inside, do not enter until you are permitted to, and if you are told 'Go back', go back; it is better for you for God knows what you do." According to Farmer and Louw (1999), these scriptural references demonstrate the salience of privacy in Islamic architecture, especially in personal residences. For example, Farmer and Louw explain that, "This means that to enter a house one should seek permission, and keep away from the private areas inside the house. This should be realized by providing a right-angled corridor so that the guest may pass through before entering the sitting room, which gives notice to those inside, especially women, to be able to leave without being seen by such a guest" (p. 451). In response to these proscriptions, Islamic architects introduced specific design elements to accommodate the need for two separate entrances. In this regard, Farmer and Louw note that, "At Najd, in the central region of Saudi Arabia, an architectural element called Al-Tarma was introduced. This is an opening through which the occupants can look to identify the visitor; next to it is a corridor which leads to the interior of the house and which is angled at 90 degrees so that entrance will not be direct in a way that may surprise the occupants" (1993, p. 451). These design elements were specifically introduced in order to provide distinct approaches to Islamic homes. Although the scriptural references are silent with respect to precise locations, traditional interpretations have resulted in private entrances being situated at the back of Islamic residences so that honored visitors can be received at the residence's front door (Farmer & Louw, 1993). Therefore, this feature of Islamic architecture has been followed into modern times. For instance, Farmer and Louw add that, "In Islamic architecture, houses have two entrances, one at the back and the other at the front. It is regarded as good to enter the house from the front entrance because doing so from the back entrance will breach the privacy of the occupants, since the private elements are always located near the private back entrance" (p. 451). Despite these similarities, though, there are also some different uses made of these different entrances depending on the Islamic country that is involved. For example, Farmer and Louw point out that, "Some houses dedicate this back entrance to women, while visitors are received at the front one, where the sitting room for men is located. The concept of 'back' is an important addition to the privacy of the house; it is something about which pre-Islamic people did not know, nor Arabs before Islam. It is the main factor which secures privacy for some places inside the house, the places about which strangers should not know" (1993, p. 451). The features that typify and which serve to characterize Islamic architecture, then, are varied but share some commonalities that help to define them in this category. Another feature that is common the Islamic architecture is the need to take the environment in which they buildings are constructed into account in both design and function, and these issues are discussed further below.

Environment and Islam

Like a chameleon that assumes the primary features of its environment, Islamic architecture has frequently integrated elements from the environment in which they are created. For instance, according to Ahmed-Ullah (1998), "Islamic architecture has always taken on influences of wherever Islam has spread and has [always] been rooted in geometry" (p. 8). This foundation and reliance of geometrical patterns is also a reflection of the environment that is based on an Islamic natural vision of God. In this regard, Tillinghast reports that, "The emphasis on pattern derives from a vision of the nature of God" (2007, p. 37). The natural connection between geometric shapes and patterns used in Islamic architecture also extends to the use of algebra, a very Islamic tradition indeed. As Tillinghast points out,"Every novice etymologist knows that our word algebra derives from Arabic al-jebr, which roughly translates as 'reunification.' One can see how this notion relates to solving an equation; but it also points to one of the essentials of Islamic theology" (2007, p. 37). Likewise, the geometric muqarnas, the stalactite-like decorative architectural elements, are also frequently characterized as the distinctive creation of Islamic architecture (Saliba, 1999). It should be noted, though, that Saliba (1999) also emphasizes that the origins of these design elements remains unclear and no architectural plans have been located to date, but the relationship between Islamic architecture and the natural environment is a recurring theme in Islamic literature. For example, Saliba reports that, "As expounded by the great Andalusian mystic Ibn 'Arabi, whose writing spanned the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the world God created remains a part of God, and so when man sets out to know the nature of the divinity, this means that one part of God - a separated or estranged part - is attempting to know another part" (p. 37). Similarly, there are references to the natural environment and Islamic architecture found in work of the Turkish mystic, Jelaluddin Rumi, whose long poem, the Mesnevi, reflects "the multiplicity of natural forms evidence of God's infinitude" (Tillinghast, 2007, p. 37). Not surprisingly, then, Islamic architects are faced with some profound challenges in promoting excellence in their work on the one hand and avoid extravagant excesses that would detract from the glorification of God on the other, all the while balancing the needs of the buildings' occupants, and these issues are discussed further below.

The Reflection of Islam in Architecture

As noted in the introductory section, there is no universally agreed upon definition of Islamic architecture and how religion is reflected in building design and function. In this regard, Omer emphasizes that, "Much has been written and said about the meaning of Islamic architecture. Nonetheless, scholars have considerably differed - and they still do - in their views as to whether there is an architecture that can be called 'Islamic,' and if there is, what are its meanings and main characteristics" (2008, p. 37). In fact, some authorities have even argued that there is a disconnect between religion and architecture that Islam does not need to bridge. For instance, Omer also emphasizes that, "To a number of people, Islam as a religion seems irrelevant to architecture. Though it is one of life's biggest necessities, architecture is seen by some not in need of any religion as a point of reference" (2008, p. 37). Despite these assertions to the contrary, it would be disingenuous to suggest that Islamic architecture does not contain religiously inspired elements or designs that are intended to facilitate the administration of the Islamic faith. As Omer points out, "Islamic architecture as a concept as well as a sensory reality already exists. Saying otherwise would do great injustice to both the religion of Islam and its followers who have striven hard for centuries to realize it in their thought, deeds and words" (2008, p. 37). Therefore, in order to be classified as "Islamic architecture" in the first place, the architectural structure must embody some aspect of the Islamic faith because these issues are specifically addressed in the body of Islamic religion. According to Omer, "Islam is a comprehensive worldview and a way of life which has neglected no segment of existence. Practicing Islam inevitably means the creation of a comprehensive culture and civilization which bear the imprints of Islamic values, teachings and principles, more in some aspects than in others, yet covering all" (2008, p. 38). While it is reasonable to suggest that other faiths carry this same level of day-to-day devotion and commitment, Omer (2008) emphasizes that for Islamic architects, the requirement to incorporate Islamic into buildings is fundamental to their faith. In this regard, Omer notes that, "Islam signifies not only a set of prescribed rituals, but also comprehensive articles of faith, philosophy, ideology, culture, civilization and the totality of life's systems: personal, family and societal. The subject of architecture is no exception to this. Islamic beliefs shape the ways in which the Muslims build" (emphasis added) (2008, p. 38). In sum, Islamic architecture exists to serve a dual purpose, the importance of either purpose being directly related to the other. In this regard, Omer emphasizes that, "Certainly, herein lies the actual importance of Islamic architecture in the sense that it not only meets the requirements of living the Islamic lifestyle by just enveloping or framing it, but also by facilitating it, as well as promoting its worth and encouraging Islamic architecture users and observers to give to such a lifestyle its due consideration and respect" (2008, p. 38). This is a tall order for any architectural style, of course, but the tenets of Islam are manifested at all stages of Islamic architecture, from start to finish, and are specifically intended to accomplish more than just housing ordinary humans. Rather, Islamic architecture "is both a field for the implementation of Islam and a vehicle for its promotion and advancement. This is done at all planes of architecture: its perception, visualization, planning, execution and utilization" (Omer, 2008, p. 38).

Fortunately for Islamic architects, though, the natural environment and the religious themes that run through the Islamic faith provide an infinite source of inspiration. According to Omer, the holistic approach to Islamic architectural design is accomplished "through inspired and innovative practical plans, designs and structural solutions, which, as a matter of fact, can never be exhausted due to the countless opportunities presented by the integration of the Islamic religion into all segments of life, or by the harmonization of the material and spiritual domains, of the heavens and the earth" (2008, p. 38). Indeed, although extravagance in private dwellings is discouraged in Islam, Islamic architecture that is intended for public purposes is another matter entirely. In this regard, Omer emphasizes that, "Islamic architecture is a style that glorifies God and His revelation. Likewise, it instills in man humility in his capacity as a worldly creature. At the same time, however, it celebrates man's honored position as God's vicegerent on earth and the glorious mission that has been entrusted to him" (2008, p. 38).

This characterization of excellence as a goal of Islamic architecture to honor the Almighty is also made by Saliba (1999) who cites early Arabic texts that indicate, "Architecture is also needed when rulers and people of a dynasty build large towns and high monuments [hayakil]. They try their utmost to make good plans and build tall structures with technical perfection, so that (architecture) can reach its highest development" (p. 23). Therefore, the concept of Islamic architecture in its entirely is comparable to the other endeavors by humanity that seek to be termed "Islamic" (Omer, 2008). For instance, Omer suggests that this applies to "the notions of 'Islamic city,' 'Islamic arts,' 'Islamic dwelling,' 'Islamic state,' 'Islamic university,' and so on. The projected functions of all these phenomena epitomize, either completely or mainly, the ethos of Islam. In other words, they are microcosms of the Islamic doctrine" (2008, p. 119). Indeed, by definition, it is impossible to separate the religious aspects of Islamic architecture from their secular features because they are inextricably bound together in various ways that are designed to capture this essential element of religion made real. In this regard, Omer also emphasizes that, "Islamic architecture exists because of the existence of Islam, and in a variety of ways serves its objectives. Islamic architecture also serves Muslims in so far as it aids them to successfully carry out their vicegerency (khilafah) on earth. Islamic architecture, therefore, is Islam manifested" (2007, p. 38). Moreover, an important point made by Omer (2008) is the fact that although Islamic architecture mirrors some of the design features that predated the religion itself, these elements have since been subsumed into the architectural genre in ways that influenced subsequent architectural designs even unto the present day. According to Omer, "Thus Islamic architecture, Islam and the Muslims are evidently inseparable. Islamic architecture originated with the advent of Islam on the world scene. It did not pre-exist Islam's advent even though the peoples that became instrumental in molding its conspicuous identity had lived in the same habitat for centuries before Islam's emergence on the scene of history" (p. 38). Therefore, Islam is an essential ingredient for buildings to be classified under the "Islamic architecture" umbrella. As Omer points out, "Indeed, studying Islamic architecture can by no means be separated from the total framework of Islam: its genesis, history, ethos, worldview, doctrines, laws and practices" (2008, p. 38). As a result, the analysis of Islamic architecture by definition requires taking into account to totality of the Islamic faith and how it pervades the daily lives of its adherents. As Omer concludes, "Any effort by anybody and at any point of time to disconnect Islamic architecture from that which held sway over its conception and formation is bound to fail and, worse yet, might lead to a distortion of the image of the whole subject including Islam itself" (2008, p. 38). Based on the foregoing, it is little wonder the expressions of the natural world find a place in Islamic architecture, and these issues are discussed further below.

The Reflection of the Environment in Islamic Architecture

Because Islamic architecture has historically been influenced by the natural environment in which it was created, there have been some manifestations of these trends in the architecture in Asia compared to that in Africa, and these can be distinguished from buildings in the Middle East and the rest of the Arab world (Williams, 2002). Some of the more common elements that typify a reflection of the environment in Islamic architecture include the layout used for public and private buildings. For instance, Aylin (2000) reports that, "The religious, administrative and commercial public center was separated from the private residential neighborhoods, connecting through a succession of transitionary open, semi-open and closed spaces; a social hierarchy of public, semi-public, semi-private and private place within the urban structure was created" (p. 10). While there are instances of towns that had been formally planned, the primary characteristic of Islamic communities was less formal in origin and resulted in "a network of winding streets and cul-de-sacs. It is of course impossible to make stylistic generalizations on Islamic architecture or urban form as a single entity; and for many Islamic countries urban form is a result of belief combined with national identity and local tradition" (Aylin, 2000, p. 10). The natural environment in which Islamic architecture has emerged over the centuries also involves allowing structures to disintegrate naturally rather than engaging in long-term efforts to rehabilitate and restore them. In this regard, Aylin (2000) advises that, "Although the traditional urban pattern may date back over several centuries, individual buildings are not that old, a result of the Moslem respect only for the permanence of God, which had inbred habits of building afresh instead of maintenance, with the residential fabric being frequently renewed" (p. 10). These environmental factors have served to forge a relatively unified conceptualization of what passes for Islamic architecture in various regions of the world based on this preponderance to built new rather than restore. According to Aylin, "Unlike European historic towns, with buildings spanning several centuries from as early as the thirteenth, Islamic towns often present stylistic homogeneity" (2000, p. 10). This stylistic homogeneity also contains several design elements that are suitable for adaptation to modern ecologically designed structures and these issues are discussed further below.