Environmental Impacts on Educational Success of Black Students

SHORTENED TITLE IN ALL CAPS

CANDIDACY PAPER DRAFT 15

Candidacy Paper Draft

Timothy R. Faust

College of Education

July 31, 2024

Running head: CANDIDACY PAPER DRAFT 1

Geographic Determinants of Educational Attainment: Examining the Academic Trajectories of Young Black Males in Chicago

Abstract

This research study focuses on how the geographical location within Chicago influences academic and life outcomes for young Black males. The study is informed by initial findings (Hackett et al., 2018) that suggest significant disparities based on location—North, South, and West sides of Chicago. This research integrates qualitative data from school principals from Chicago Public Schools (CPS) (North: Taft High School, Lakeview High School; South:

Corliss High School, Julian High School; West: Wells High School, Collins High School) aiming to explore systemic factors that contribute to these disparities.

Introduction

Historical Context and Systemic Issues

Historical Context

Chicago has long been recognized as one of the most racially segregated cities in the United States. This segregation is not a relic of the past but continues to profoundly shape the socio-economic and educational landscapes of the city. The historical roots of this segregation can be traced back to discriminatory practices such as redlining, restrictive covenants, and urban renewal policies that systematically marginalized Black communities. These practices have created enduring divides that influence the quality of education and life opportunities available to residents of different neighborhoods.

Systemic Issues: Prison-to-School Pipeline

A critical systemic issue impacting young Black males in Chicago is the prison-to-school pipeline. This phenomenon describes the alarming trend where students, particularly those from marginalized communities, are funneled out of public schools and into the juvenile and criminal justice systems. Contributing factors include zero-tolerance policies, inadequate educational resources, and a lack of supportive services within schools. These policies disproportionately affect Black students, exacerbating the challenges they face and perpetuating cycles of disadvantage.

Chicago Public Schools Black Student Success Initiative

In response to these longstanding issues, the Chicago Public Schools (CPS) has implemented the Black Student Success Initiative. This initiative is part of a broader five-year plan aimed at improving educational outcomes for Black students across the district. The plan outlines strategies to address disparities in academic achievement, access to advanced coursework, and school discipline. It emphasizes the importance of culturally responsive teaching, increased access to mental health services, and enhanced family and community engagement. (Chicago Public Schools [CPS], n.d.)

Young Black males in Chicago encounter significant disparities in their education, including differential access to quality schooling and resources. These disparities are compounded by socioeconomic factors such as poverty and limited healthcare, which negatively affect their academic preparedness and success. These educational gaps are a direct result of long-standing policies and systemic biases that have historically marginalized Black communities, creating an environment that restricts their educational and socioeconomic advancement.

Problem Statement

Educational inequities in Chicago are stark, especially affecting young Black males who face a disproportionate challenge in impoverished neighborhoods. The city's educational system is influenced by deep-seated racial and economic segregation and presents a critical area of study to understand how location-specific variables, such as economic resources, school funding, and neighborhood safety, influence educational access and achievement. Such variables affect educational experiences (just as the social determinants of health affect people’s health) because they directly influence the quality of education students receive. Economic resources determine the level of funding available for schools, affecting the availability of educational materials, technology, extracurricular activities, resources, and qualified teaching staff. School funding is often tied to local property taxes, which contributes to disparities in resources between schools in affluent neighborhoods and those in economically disadvantaged areas. For example, schools like Taft and Lakeview on the North Side may receive more funding compared to schools like Corliss and Julian on the South Side, resulting in unequal access to educational opportunities. Neighborhood safety is another factor, as students from high-crime areas may face challenges such as chronic absenteeism, stress, and limited after-school engagement, further widening the achievement gap. By examining these variables across specific schools—Taft, Lakeview, Corliss, Julian, Wells, and Collins High Schools—within District 299, the study looks to see how systemic inequities manifest at the local level, and gain new perspective on how geographic distinctions contribute to educational disparities.

Purpose Statement

This study aims to delineate how Chicago’s geographical distinctions impact the educational outcomes of its young Black male population. Communities tend to be geographically separated: each has its own distinctions; some are wealthier, some seen as being safer, some seen as being better or worse based on quality of life in that area, and so on. Even though city taxes, including property taxes, are collected and distributed by the city to fund various public services, including schools, the distribution of these funds is not always even across all schools within a district like CPS 299. The allocation of funds takes into account several factors, such as student enrollment, student needs, and program requirements. Schools with more students generally receive more funding. Schools with higher numbers of students requiring special education, English language learning, or other support services may receive additional funds. Schools offering specialized programs, such as STEM or arts programs, might receive extra funding to support these initiatives. Thus, the overall pool of city tax revenue is distributed to the district, but the specific amounts each school receives can vary based on these and other factors. By examining three primary regions—North, South, and West sides—the research looks at geographic factors unique to schools in District 299 (North – Taft High School and Lakeview High School, West – Wells High Schools and Collins High School, and South – Corliss High School and Julian High School.) and their impact on Black male students’ educational experiences. This focused investigation is essential for developing targeted educational strategies that address the needs of young Black males in differing urban settings.

To achieve that focused approach, however, there needs to be foundational understanding that can only be obtained through exploratory research. Using a qualitative research approach, this study seeks to gain that understanding into the lived experiences of students, teachers, and administrators in these schools. Through interviews, the research will search for themes that tell how geographic distinctions (funding inequities are just one aspect of these distinctions—environment, diversity, safety, etc. are others) manifest in daily educational practices and outcomes. The qualitative approach allows for a foundational exploration of personal experiences and perceptions to see more deeply into how geography affects education.

The primary goal of this study is to identify specific educational barriers and opportunities unique to each geographic area within the CPS district 299, thereby giving a clearer understanding of the systemic challenges faced by Black male students. By focusing on a select group of schools, the research aims to uncover patterns and themes that may not be apparent through quantitative data alone. This focused investigation is essential for developing targeted educational strategies that can be tailored to the unique needs of young Black males in different urban environments. Ultimately, this study seeks to inform educators, policymakers, and community leaders about the importance of addressing geographical disparities in education.

Guiding Questions

How do neighborhood-level factors influence the academic achievement and educational attainment of young Black males in Chicago?

This question aims to explore the impact of socio-economic conditions, neighborhood safety, and community resources on the educational outcomes of Black male students. It seeks to uncover how living in different geographic areas of Chicago affects students' academic experiences and opportunities.

How does access to equitable educational resources vary across different schools in Chicago Public Schools District 299, particularly between low-budget and high-budget school clusters?

This question examines the discrepancies in resource allocation within CPS, focusing on how schools in affluent neighborhoods have access to more financial and educational resources compared to those in economically disadvantaged areas. It aims to identify the extent of these disparities and their implications for educational equity.

In what ways does the lack of resources in low-budget schools within CPS District 299 curtail the academic trajectories of Black male students?

This question addresses the specific challenges faced by students in underfunded schools, such as inadequate staffing, insufficient educational materials, and limited access to extracurricular activities. It seeks to understand how these limitations hinder the academic progress and future opportunities for Black male students in these environments.

What specific issues arise from the differentiation between low-budget and high-budget school clusters in CPS District 299, and how do these issues affect educational equity for Black male students?

This question focuses on educating readers about the systemic challenges that create and perpetuate funding disparities within CPS. It aims to highlight the differences in school budgets, the allocation of resources, and the broader impact on educational equity for Black male students. There are differences between low-budget and high-budget school clusters. Schools in affluent areas tend to benefit from higher local property taxes, leading to increased funding that supports smaller class sizes, advanced technology, extracurricular programs, and experienced educators. Conversely, schools in less affluent neighborhoods often struggle with limited budgets, resulting in outdated materials, larger class sizes, and higher teacher turnover rates.

Significance of the Study

This research is pivotal in framing effective educational reforms that consider the varied geographical contexts of Chicago. In pinpointing how different neighborhoods uniquely influence educational outcomes, the study has facilitated the development of localized solutions that enhance educational equity and effectiveness. The findings offer actionable insights that can guide policymakers, educators, and community leaders in crafting interventions that genuinely reflect the needs of each community.

Rationale

The decision to utilize a qualitative approach in this study is driven by the need to understand complex social realities and capture rich, detailed data that is often not accessible through quantitative methods. The educational experiences and outcomes of young Black males in Chicago are influenced by a myriad of interrelated factors including cultural, socioeconomic, and institutional dynamics that vary significantly across different geographical areas. Qualitative methods are particularly well-suited for deep-down explorations that allow for greater insight: Indeed, “an underlying assumption of qualitative research is that rich data are grounded in a real-world context” (Bloomberg, 2023, p. 76).

By conducting semi-structured interviews and engaging in direct observation, this study focuses on how socioeconomic, cultural, and institutional factors across specific geographic areas of Chicago directly affect Black male students. This approach offers deep insights into the contextual factors influencing educational practices and Black male student outcomes. While administrators' perspectives are valuable, the primary aim is to understand the direct impact on students. It is assumed that administrators will be able to give an objective perspective on what they see going on with their students regarding this topic. This methodology allows researchers to adapt their inquiries based on the responses and situations encountered in the field: as Bailey (2018) notes, “Field researchers use all their senses during observations” (p. 47). Immersing themselves in the field, engaging others, and observing requires the researchers’ utmost attention and careful consideration. The research has to be quick on his feet and adaptive. Such flexibility is helpful in exploring the geographical impact on education, as different neighborhoods within one school district may present unique challenges and opportunities. Qualitative research emphasizes understanding the experiences from the viewpoint of the students, which is essential for comprehensively addressing the impact of geographic disparities on education (Bloomberg, 2023).

The decision to use qualitative methods in this study is based on the need to obtain foundational understanding of the realities faced by young Black males in Chicago’s educational environment. These methods are particularly effective for exploring the influences of cultural, socioeconomic, and institutional dynamics that are deeply embedded in the specific geographic areas of Chicago. Unlike quantitative approaches, which rely on numerical data and statistical analyses but which leave out the human experience, qualitative research provides rich, detailed descriptions and insights that are grounded in real-world contexts and direct observations. This approach is essential for exploring the lived experiences and perceptions of Black male students, gaining deeper understanding of their situation, and realizing the unique challenges and opportunities present in their neighborhoods.

Through semi-structured interviews and direct observations, this study can go more deeply into how these students perceive their educational environment and how various factors, such as funding inequities, urban geographical environment, or cultural biases may affect their academic achievement. For instance, interviews with students and administrators allow for the exploration of personal narratives and firsthand accounts of their experiences in the school system, while observations provide an objective perspective on the day-to-day dynamics within classrooms and communities. This methodological flexibility is helpful for adapting inquiries based on the unfolding realities in the field, thus allowing researchers to be responsive and insightful in their exploration.

Furthermore, qualitative methods enable researchers to capture the voices of the students themselves, providing a platform for those who are often marginalized in educational discourse. Understanding students’ perspectives is needed for addressing the impact of geographic disparities on education, as it can be a way to see the underlying issues that quantitative data alone cannot capture. This approach aligns perfectly with the research questions, which aim to uncover the specific challenges and opportunities that arise from the intersection of geography and education for Black male students in Chicago. With qualitative insights, the study can offer a way to better inform policy decisions and educational practices so that they are more equitable and reflective of the students’ actual needs and realities.

Literature Review

Introduction

This literature review examines existing research and theoretical perspectives related to educational disparities among Black communities in Chicago, the impact of historical oppression on these disparities, and the potential for educational reforms as reparative measures. The review is structured around three main themes that emerge from the literature: the historical roots of educational inequities, the current landscape of educational disparities, and strategies for educational reform and reparations. Through this review, this study can be contextualized within the wider academic discourse to see the gaps that this research looks to address.

Review of Literature

At the national level, educational funding inequity is a pervasive issue that has persisted throughout the history of the United States. The disparity in school funding is primarily driven by the reliance on local property taxes to finance public education, leading to vast differences in educational resources between wealthy and impoverished communities (Kozol, 1991). According to a 2024 report by the National Center for Education Statistics, schools in affluent areas can spend as much as three times more per student compared to schools in low-income areas, while overall “between 2010–11 and 2020–21, public school revenues increased by 16 percent (from $819 billion to $954 billion in constant 2022–23 dollars)” (NCES, 2024). Obviously, there is a ton of money about, but it is not all going to all schools evenly. This inequality has deep roots, with federal policies often failing to adequately address the needs of marginalized communities, thereby perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage (Darling-Hammond, 2010). The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 was one of the first significant federal efforts to address these disparities by providing additional resources to schools serving low-income students. However, critics argue that subsequent policies, such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, have fallen short in equalizing funding, often placing undue emphasis on standardized testing without addressing the core issue of resource allocation (Ravitch, 2010).

State Level: A Closer Look

At the state level, the issue of inequitable school funding is subtler still. States have their own formulas for distributing educational funds, which can certainly contribute to existing inequalities. For instance, a study by the Education Law Center found that states like Illinois and Pennsylvania have some of the most regressive funding systems in the country, where schools in wealthier districts receive significantly more funding per student than those in poorer districts (Baker et al., 2018). The role of state governments in perpetuating inequity is further highlighted by disparities in teacher salaries, infrastructure investments, and access to technology. In Illinois, the funding formula has historically favored wealthier districts, leading to pronounced disparities in educational opportunities for students based on their zip code (Baker et al., 2018). This inequity is not just a matter of funding. It also reflects socio-political factos, where affluent communities can have more political clout to advocate for their interests, leaving underrepresented communities behind.

Local/City Level: The Ground Reality

At the local level, the city of Chicago presents a stark example of how educational funding inequity plays out in real-time. The Chicago Public Schools (CPS) system, serving a predominantly low-income and minority student population, has faced significant funding challenges over the years. Despite being one of the largest school districts in the country, CPS struggles with budget shortfalls, outdated facilities, and inadequate resources (Hackett et al., 2018). This is in sharp contrast to suburban districts like New Trier, which boast state-of-the-art facilities and a wealth of extracurricular opportunities (Lipman, 2011). It is not surprising therefore to find that in Chicago, “black adolescents disproportionately attend large urban schools where academic achievement and graduation rates are often lower than the national average” (Hackett et al., 2018, p. 2561).

A significant factor contributing to this disparity is the reliance on property taxes to fund education. In Chicago, neighborhoods with lower property values generate less revenue for schools, leading to a resource gap that affects everything from classroom materials to teacher recruitment and retention (Rothstein, 2017). For example, schools on the South and West sides of Chicago, such as Corliss and Wells High Schools, often receive less funding than their counterparts on the more affluent North Side, such as Taft High School. One can simply tell from the respective websites of Corliss and Taft that these are two schools in two very different funding situations. Not only that but by appearances and environment, too, one can see that the two schools are going to give young Black males a very different educative experience. For schools like Corliss, it has resulted in larger class sizes, fewer advanced placement courses, and limited access to extracurricular activities, all of which negatively impact student outcomes (Noguera, 2008).

The history of segregation in Chicago also plays a critical role in perpetuating educational inequities. Policies such as redlining and restrictive covenants have historically confined Black families to certain neighborhoods, leading to the concentration of poverty and limited access to quality education (Rothstein, 2017). Even today, the legacy of these policies continues to shape the educational landscape, with predominantly Black and Hispanic schools facing significant barriers to academic success (Lipman, 2011).

Bridging the Gap: Strategies and Reforms

Addressing educational funding inequity requires a multifaceted approach that includes both policy reforms and community engagement. At the national level, increasing federal investment in education and implementing more equitable funding formulas can help bridge the resource gap between rich and poor districts. State governments must reevaluate their funding formulas to ensure that they allocate resources based on student need rather than local wealth (Baker et al., 2010). Locally, cities like Chicago need to prioritize funding for schools in underserved areas, providing additional support for programs that address the unique challenges faced by students in these communities.

Community involvement is also crucial in driving change. Engaging parents, educators, and local organizations in advocacy efforts can help raise awareness about the importance of equitable funding and push for necessary policy changes. Additionally, investing in early childhood education and wraparound services can help mitigate the effects of poverty and create a more level playing field for all students (Darling-Hammond, 2010).

Impact of Economic Inequality on Black Male Students

Segregation is part of the problem of economic inequality as it relates to employment and housing. This theme looks into the specific ways that educational segregation and systemic inequalities uniquely impact Black male students. Studies in this area often focus on the intersectionality of race and gender, showing the disadvantages that Black males face within educational systems. Research indicates that structural inequities within segregated schools contribute significantly to the educational challenges faced by Black male students. Orfield and Lee (2005) argue that segregation not only isolates Black students from resources but also concentrates poverty-related issues within their schools, exacerbating academic disparities. This segregation often results in Black male students attending underfunded schools with limited access to advanced coursework, extracurricular activities, and experienced teachers.

Despite the pervasive challenges, some literature emphasizes the importance of targeted interventions and support systems that can mitigate the adverse effects of segregation. Noguera (2008) calls for culturally responsive pedagogy, mentorship programs, and community involvement as crucial strategies for improving the educational outcomes of Black male students. Such interventions address academic needs and can give emotional and social support, fostering a more inclusive and supportive educational environment.

Historical Roots of Educational Inequities

Research within this theme explores the historical underpinnings of educational disparities, tracing back to the era of segregation and discriminatory policies that explicitly excluded Black students from accessing quality education. Studies highlight how these historical injustices have left enduring marks on the educational landscape, affecting generations of Black students. For instance, Anderson (1988) in "The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935" provides a seminal analysis of how post-Civil War policies shaped educational opportunities for Black Americans, laying the groundwork for contemporary disparities.

During the post-Civil War Reconstruction era, the United States witnessed the establishment of the first public schools for Black Americans, primarily in the South. However, these schools were often severely underfunded and overcrowded, lacking the basic resources necessary for a quality education. The landmark Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) cemented the doctrine of "separate but equal," legitimizing state-sponsored segregation and paving the way for the widespread establishment of separate and unequal educational facilities for Black students (Anderson, 1988). This decision justified the allocation of significantly fewer resources to Black schools, perpetuating a cycle of educational inequity that would last for decades.

The Jim Crow era further entrenched these disparities. Schools for Black children were consistently underfunded compared to their White counterparts. As documented by Carter G. Woodson in "The Mis-Education of the Negro" (1933), Black students were often taught curricula that reinforced their supposed inferiority, emphasizing vocational training over academic achievement. This education system aimed to prepare Black children for roles as laborers rather than leaders, further entrenching socio-economic disparities.

Despite the legal advances made during the Civil Rights Movement, such as the landmark Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision that declared segregated schools unconstitutional, the transition to integrated and equitable education was slow and met with significant resistance. The ruling faced numerous challenges and deliberate obstructions at the local level, where many schools employed tactics like zoning laws and school choice policies to maintain de facto segregation. In fact, efforts to desegregate schools often resulted in "white flight," where White families moved to suburban areas, leaving urban schools predominantly Black and underfunded. This shift exacerbated existing disparities, as property taxes primarily funded public schools. With dwindling tax bases in urban areas, schools faced severe financial constraints, limiting their ability to provide quality education and resources to students (Rothstein, 2017).

These historical injustices have left enduring marks on the educational landscape, affecting generations of Black students. The inequalities established in the past have led to persistent disparities in school funding, resource allocation, and academic achievement that continue to disadvantage Black students today. Research by Darling-Hammond (2010) highlights that schools serving predominantly Black and minority students often receive significantly less funding per student compared to those in predominantly White districts, resulting in overcrowded classrooms, outdated materials, and fewer extracurricular opportunities. Thus, it can be seen that educational inequities rooted in historical segregation and discrimination continues to shape the educational experiences of Black students.

Current Landscape of Educational Disparities

This theme focuses on the present-day manifestations of educational inequities, detailing how factors such as school funding formulas, teacher quality, and curriculum relevance continue to disadvantage Black students. Research shows that schools serving predominantly Black communities often receive fewer resources, employ less experienced teachers, and have lower graduation rates compared to schools in more affluent, predominantly White neighborhoods. Works by Darling-Hammond (2010) in "The Flat World and Education" and Kozol (1991) in "Savage Inequalities" provide detailed accounts of these disparities and their impacts on students' educational experiences and outcomes. Darling-Hammond (2010) argues that in a globalized economy, knowledge and skills are the new currency. Unequal access to quality education denies Black students the opportunity to develop these essential skills, which blocks their ability to compete for high-paying jobs and upward mobility. Kozol (1991) gives a first-hand look at the stark realities Black students faced. His book depicts schools in affluent, predominantly White neighborhoods boasting modern facilities and experienced teachers. In contrast, schools serving Black communities are often characterized by overcrowding and outdated resources. This is true even today, as Taft in Chicago has a new nine-hole putting green while Corliss has no such nice amenities. This reality helps to underscore Darling-Hammond's message: unequal funding translates to unequal access to the educational tools necessary for success in the modern world.

The Ecology of Race

The Ecology of Race model is integral to this research because it gives a framework for examining how multiple layers of environmental factors intersect with race to impact the educational experiences of Black male students. This model builds on Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, which posits that human development is influenced by interactions across various environmental systems, including the microsystem (immediate environment), mesosystem (interconnections), exosystem (external environments), and macrosystem (cultural and societal norms) (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bringing Critical Race Theory (CRT) into this ecological framework, the study can look more deeply into how systemic racism, school policies, neighborhood dynamics, and community resources all impact and shape educational outcomes.

This model, however, specifically addresses the research questions by revealing how geographic disparities in Chicago affect access to educational resources and opportunities. It allows one to see how neighborhood-level factors—such as economic inequality, historical segregation, and safety—contribute to disparities in academic achievement among Black male students. The Ecology of Race model also makes it possible to identify targeted interventions that can mitigate these disparities and improve educational equity, which supports the goal of examining the socio-economic and institutional dynamics that influence Black students' educational trajectories.

This theme thus builds on the concept of Ecological Systems Theory by Bronfenbrenner (1979), which suggests that an individual's development is profoundly influenced by their interactions within multiple environmental layers (Crawford, 2020). For young Black males, these layers are often permeated by racial dynamics that affect their educational experiences and opportunities. The theme is explored through an examination of how systemic racism, neighborhood resources, school policies, and community engagement collectively contribute to educational disparities. Literature pertinent to this theme highlights the significant role that institutionalized and neighborhood-specific racial factors play in shaping educational settings (Small, 2020). Studies integrated into the review, such as those examining the distribution of resources and the quality of educational facilities, often reveal that racially segregated and economically disadvantaged neighborhoods suffer from a lack of support and investment, directly impacting student achievement and growth (Small, 2020).

This comprehensive analysis not only deepens the understanding of the ecological factors influencing education but also aligns with Critical Race Theory to reveal the embedded inequalities that these ecological factors sustain. Critical Race Theory (CRT) provides a crucial framework for understanding how race and racism intersect with various social systems to perpetuate inequality. CRT posits that racism is not just a product of individual bias but is embedded within the fabric of society, including its laws, policies, and institutions (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). This perspective is essential for examining the ecological factors that influence educational disparities. By integrating CRT, this analysis reveals how historical and contemporary forms of racial discrimination shape the environments in which young Black males live and learn.

CRT is an essential framework for this study because it provides a lens through which to understand the systemic nature of racial inequities in education. By applying CRT to the research questions, one can see how racism is embedded within the educational system and examine how these structural inequities affect the educational experiences of Black male students in Chicago. This theoretical approach allows for critical analysis of the power dynamics and institutional practices that perpetuate disparities in school funding, resource allocation, and academic achievement.

CRT also foregrounds race as a central factor in understanding educational inequities. It challenges traditional narratives that may overlook or minimize the role of racism in shaping educational outcomes. Through a focus on the systemic aspects of racism, CRT lets one see the root causes of disparities and consider how policies and practices can be reformed to promote equity. This approach is particularly important in the context of Chicago, where historical segregation and contemporary inequalities have resulted in significant educational challenges for Black male students.

The six key tenets of CRT are permanent racism, whiteness as property, interest convergence, critique of liberalism, narrative and counter-narrative, and intersectionality. This study focuses on the following four tenets of CRT: