Computing errors and hazards: the Therac-25 radiation therapy case

Ethics and Computing in Computer Science

EMPOWERMENT AND RESPONSIBILITY

Errors and Hazards and Their Consequences

Despite the best of care and talent, computation is subject to uncertainties, which experts call "errors (Landau, 2008)." Some of these errors are man-made and some are produced by the computer itself. The four classes of errors are blunders or bad theory, random errors, approximation or algorithm errors, and round-off errors. Blunders are typographical errors or errors caused by running or using the wrong program or similar errors. Random errors are results of occurrences like fluctuations in electronics or cosmic rays running through the computer. Algorithm or approximation errors include the substitution of finite by infinite figures or variable inputs by constants. And round-off errors are inaccuracies as the finite number of digits for storing floating numbers (Landau). Peter Neumann at the SRI International identified more than 400 incidents of these errors, hazards and other problems, which can injure users and lead to financial loss. And these are not isolated or infrequent incidents. They happen as a consequence of encouraging programmers to produce large programs in haste and despite the awareness of the strong probability of these errors and hazards (Jacky).

Computing hazards include a race condition and memory leak (Jacky, 1989). A race condition or hazard is a system misbehavior, which results from the sequence or timing uncontrollable events or outside stimuli on which the output depends. And a memory leak refers to the gradual loss of available memory when a program or application in an operating system from continued but temporary use. But a classic computing hazard involves Therac-25. The Therac-25 is a radiation therapy machine produced by the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited put to use after the Therac-6 and Therac-20. There were 6 incidents between 1985 and 1987 during which medical patients were given massive doses of radiation approximately 100 times the intended doses. These deadly occurrences reveal the dangers that software control of safety critical systems are capable of inflicting (Jacky).

The sad state is that the production and control of these wares are still largely unregulated (Jacky, 1989). Only aviation and nuclear power application softwares are subjected to government approval prior to purchase. The Food and Drug Administration, fortunately, started regulating software for use as medical devices. After the Therac incidents, there arose the clamor for certification of software professionals involved in safety projects. Concerned sectors want stricter government control. There are other sectors, however, which oppose this because of the likelihood of government interference and increased costs. Some believe that the solution is not regulation but effective management. Those in the industry have three approaches to the problem. The first is to regulate the people who provide the services. The second is to certify organizations, companies or departments, which produce software and other wares. And the third is to regulate the products themselves. When systems fail, the victims or their families may file lawsuits against the vendors and the providers for damages (Jacky).

III. Societal Consequences of Computer Science and the Technologies

When the internet was first discovered, it was an uncharted dimension where everyone could easily and freely go in and come out (McChesney, 2013). Nobody owned it. There were no commercials, no one was watching and those who went in and out could do what they wanted. It was very promising and life seemed good. But in the last five years, something began to take place. From many fronts, many large corporations have been emerging and using the internet for their private or selfish purposes. And they are very powerful. These include AT & T, Verizon, Comcast, Google, Facebook, Apple, and Amazon. They are extremely successful in securing information from users of the internet. Privacy has ceased to exist in the internet. What these giants do is to sell the information they are able to freely secure in and through the internet to advertisers. They do this with the cooperation of, and in collaboration with, the government, the national security state and the military. And this is disturbing (McChesney).

Everyone should be told or reminded that internet access is controlled by a cartel of these mentioned giants (McChesney, 2013). We in America pay far more paying for cellular phones than people in any other country. The same is true with broadband wired access. The issue here is not the technology or economics but corrupt policy making and the power and its motive behind these giant firms. Their vast power enables them to virtually privatize cyberspace. That power thus virtually allows them to own it. What is worse is that internet users have no choice. These giants dominate and swarm the internet with their wares. In the beginning, the internet promised to be a great economic booster of growth. It could surely enhance economic growth in all countries. It could create new businesses and employments. It could boost economic growth like no other force could or ever did. Yet from the late 90s, something else developed. It has become the biggest generator of monopolies. Whether the internet user enters Google, Apple, Facebook or Amazon, he interplays with network economics. If he is sensitive, he gets the feel that there now seems to be an invisible owner or owners of cyberspace. And he soon realizes that these virtual owners realize incredible profits from the internet. It is very much like colonization in ancient times (McChesney).

And just like in colonization times, these huge empires or colonizers -- named Google, Facebook, Apple and Amazon -- are like powerful continents in the world much like in the late 19th century times of colonization (McChesney, 2013). They use their continents to gather profits and use these profits to spread their control and even launch attacks on other contents and grab the profits of those other continents. They know that all of them are out to make as much profit in colonizing. If a country does not have a continent, it is not a participant in the competition. It has no power. They are also clever enough to use patents to bar newcomers from the realm. A more frightening reality today is the resulting loss of privacy. A Google-related company or a Facebook-related company, for instance, collects individual information about any person and we do not even know about it. And these giants can track anyone, such as voters, to enable them to approach him for their purposes. This is how they promote the industry and how privacy is being taken away. This is how they are turning the internet against democracy (McChesney)

These giants each have their continents and they are again out to colonize the un-chartered realm of the internet (McChesney). These few giants now monopolize the internet and to their sole advancement. They use their immense profits from the internet to assault the other continents They follow the authoritarian theory, which builds the power upon economic and political resources and advantage (McChesney).