Family, Deliquency and Crime Define

Family, Deliquency and Crime

Define and explain the cycle of violence hypothesis as it relates to the intergenerational transmission of mistreating children. Be sure to include evidence that supports your position.

The cycle of violence theory is a well-known hypothesis that in its most simple form means that a cycle or a pattern of violence is set up that is "inherited" by the children. This refers not to possible genetic aspects of violent crime that may be physically inherited but more aptly to the view that criminal patterns of behavior and deviance learned in the home or family environment are carried forward and perpetuated in the lives of those who have been exposed to these patterns of violence.

This view is supported research sponsored by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), which found that, "...childhood abuse and neglect increased the odds of future delinquency and adult criminality overall by 29%" and "...being abused or neglected as a child increased the likelihood of arrest as a juvenile by 59%, as an adult by 28%, and for a violent crime by 30%" (Widom and Maxfield, 2001). In the light of these statistics, the cycle of violence hypothesis therefore suggests that, "...a childhood history of physical abuse predisposes the survivor to violence in later years. This study reveals that victims of neglect" (Widom and Maxfield, 2001).

The transmission of violent patterns of behavior is therefore considered to take place largely within the family structure and become intergenerational. The most common and plausible explanation for this process is that these patterns of behavior are learned within the family environment and imitated by the children. However, this learning process, as many studies indicate, is a complex process and often involves outside influences and variables. This also means that it does not necessarily follow that every individual who is exposed to prolonged periods of violent behavior at an influential age will automatically adopt these types of behavior. "....the learning of aggressive behavior is a complex process in which the interactions between individual, environmental and structural variables produce different outcomes in different individuals" (the cycle of violence: the role of parental variables in the learning of aggression).

However, the general theoretical consensus is that children learn by imitation of those around them and this can lead to the adoption of violent behavior in homes where parents exhibit such behavior. There are many critiques of this theory, with the main criticism being that it is too weak to explain the considerable variance in the research findings. For example, it has been found that exposure to violence has different outcomes for different people; and that very often the children who are exposed do not continue to become abusers themselves in later life. As a result, "...these problems with the cycle of violence hypothesis have led researchers to try different approaches to identify which specific family variables are more likely to influence the transmission and maintenance of aggressive behaviors" (the cycle of violence: the role of parental variables in the learning of aggression)

The cycle of violence hypothesis can be linked to other theoretical trajectories in criminology. This includes theories such as social learning as well as different social learning models. (Simon et al., 2004, p. 45)

Question 2.

According to Patterson' Coercion Model, explain the factors that lead to the inceptions and evolution of delinquency and crime. Be sure to include discussion regarding the link between family functioning and involvement with a deviant peer group and support your response.

In terms of Paterson's Coercion Model of deviant and delinquent behavior the locus of the problem lies in the initial link between family interaction and the subsequent development of delinquent behavior. In this model, the negative behavior patterns that are learned in the family situation tend to be extended outwards to peer groups and society - which leads to possible criminal and delinquent actions.

This model was developed from numerous studies that involved family members as well as school authorities and peers, among others. In essence, the model suggests that deviant and criminal behavior have their origins in parental and disciplinary situations; and especially with regard to the "irritable, explosive parent" (Simon et al., 2004, p. 49). The parent's actions tend to focus on the child's behavior in an overly negative way, which often leads to forms of criticism of the child.

This in turn often results in equally negative and usually defiant reaction from the child. The child feels unfairly treated and always under negative observation. This leads to a spiral and cycle of confrontation and tension. This situation tends to reinforce the child's antisocial behavior and can push him or her in the direction of deviant behavior, as a sign of rebellion against the norms that the parent represents.

However, this conflict often leads to verbal exchanges, where the parent backs down and gives into the child. This is serious situation as it can lead to a breakdown of discipline in the family structure. This phase is referred to as "nattering," where there is verbal remonstrance and exchange from the parent but little concrete action or real parenting. In this model of the interaction between the parent and child, the parent is in fact reinforcing the child's negative behavior in term of the principles of learning theory.

In essence, a situation is created in the interaction between parent and child where the child does not learn prosocial and problem solving techniques, such as compromise. This is the crux of the theory in that the child, through parental mismanagement of the situation, learns ways of dealing of the world that are aggressive and antisocial. These learnt responses and behavior patterns are then extended to the outside world and peer groups. For example, when dealing with peers the child may tend to use "...anger and defiance as a way of solving problems and getting what they want from others" ((Simon et al., 2004, p. 51).

In other words, what Patterson found in his research was that these styles of interpersonal interaction learned in the home tend to be generalized and applied when dealing with others, peers and the outside world. This in turn could lead to behavior such as bullying and other coercive actions.

Furthermore, in many cases these coercive actions prove to have "positive" results in that other children will often give into an aggressive bullying attitude. This in turn reinforces the behavior, which may extend into later life.

Question 3.

Discuss the factors, as related through research and theories, which would lead to a life-course trajectory of adult crime and deviance.

A life course trajectory of adult crime has, in terms of many theoretical stances, its origins in the early years of a child's development and in the family and home situation. However, this generalization is not true for all circumstances and situations. In general, many theories suggest that the root and precipitating causative factors that lead to life-courses in deviant behavior and crime have their origins in the early years of development.

For example, as discussed above, coercion theory posits a model that shows how the child's development follows from patterns of parental response and actions, which is often seen as a form of mismanagement that can lead to antisocial patterns of behavior becoming part of the way that the individual deals with the outside world. This in turn could lead to crime and associated behaviors becoming an intrinsic part of the individual's character and in his or her response to the outside world.

While the family and the early years of development are important factors in the development of a life-course trajectory of adult crime, other aspects should also be considered. One aspect is peer influence, and another is economics and other contingent factors that can shape the lifestyle of the individual,

In terms of theoretic perspectives, one of the common views relating to life-course perspectives is the age-graded control theory of deviant behavior. This theory puts forward the view that crime is essentially a breakdown in social control. The development of life-course deviance is therefore seen to be a result of deviant behavior that occurs at an early age, which undermines various social controls that would otherwise be dominant in the later stages of the individual's life. (Simon et al., 2004, p.124) in other words, persistent deviant and delinquent behavior that is unchecked at an early age will have a degrading influence on social and institutional bonds that attach the individual to society. This has a cumulative effect and results in a life-course trajectory towards crime.

Peers also play a role in this development in various ways. For example, peers may reject a problematic or difficult child that increases the chances that these children will be motivated to join deviant peer groups; which in turn increase their chances of a life-course towards crime.

However, control theory, especially in terms of age grading has been criticized for theoretical shortcoming. Critics point out in the first instance, that although it is true that deviant or oppositional behavior does set up the possibility of a gradual divorce from the conventional norms of society, this is not always the case. In fact, many studies show that deviant or antisocial children may experience a strengthening of the bonds between parents and society in the process of their development.

Therefore, while social control theory is one view, there are many alternative theories that take other findings and variables into account. In general, the view that a deviant child who does not change by a certain age is "condemned "to a life of crime if sharply criticized, as it often does not concur with empirical findings. Theories put forward by Gottfredson and Hirsch propose another view of the life-course towards crime that takes into account the fact that in many case early deviant behavior does not necessarily lead to a life-long pattern of criminal behavior.

Question 4.

Describe the labeling theory and the consequences that labeling can have on a child. Should we be concerned with labeling? Why or why not?

In essence, labeling theory refers to the way that legal and other institutions organizations 'label" or categorize people as being deviant or criminal. While these organizations label people as a result of the process of law, incarceration and rehabilitation, many theorist contend that this labeling in fact increases or exacerbates the individuals involvement in criminal activities.

Labeling theory in criminology is a view of the criminal not as a separate individual but as a group or a certain category or "types" of individual. Therefore, Labeling Theory states the fact that certain groups of people are 'labeled' as criminals, instigates criminal behavior.

Labeling Theory was a child of the 1960s and 1970s, which saw criminals as underdogs who initially did something out of the ordinary, and then got swept up in a huge, government-sponsored labeling or shunning reaction. It argues that anyone facing such an overwhelming, negative labeling social reaction will eventually become more like the label because that is the only way out for their identify formation.

Crime Theories)

This theory results in the perception of deviance or deviant behavior in sociology and criminology as a reaction to societal norms and pressures. In other words, crime is defined not in terms of individual choice but in terms of social definitions.

Deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.

Overview of Labeling Theories)

The reason why labeling theory should be given serious consideration is that it is concerned with the way that individual may be stigmatized by these labels or categories. The contention is that this stigmatization can result in a negative perception and treatment of that individual - which can lead to these persons internalizing that label, developing negative views about themselves, and consequently leading a life of crime or deviance. Therefore, while agencies and organization use labels ostensibly as an attempt to reduce crime, they may in fact be perpetuating criminal propensities.

However, it should also be noted that there are many studies that do not support the views of labeling theory. They state that there is little empirical evidence to support the claim that labeling or categorization leads directly to an increase in crime. This once again brings up the point that there are many variables and aspects that have to be considered in the assessment of the causes of criminal behavior. Nevertheless, labeling theory does provide an important contribution to the understanding of criminal behavior.

Question

Define child abuse and think about its prevalence in the United States. Based on your understanding of families and delinquency, what are two things you would do to address child abuse? Be sure to support your response.

According to a recent report from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), approximately 905,000 children were found to be victims of child abuse or neglect in 2006. (ACF Questions and Answers Support) of this figure "....64.1% suffered neglect, 16% were physically abused, 8.8% were sexually abused, 6.6% were emotionally or psychologically maltreated, and 2.2% were medically neglected" (ACF Questions and Answers Support). This also includes at least fifteen percent who suffered from other forms of abuse, such as "threats of harm to the child," and "congenital drug addiction." (ACF Questions and Answers Support) These figures not only outline the extent of the problem but also show that the term 'child abuse' has many different aspects that need to be included in a comprehensive view of the problem.