Fire safety management systems and best practices

Fire Safety Management

The purpose of this paper is to explore several key concepts related to Fire Safety Management. Specifically this paper aims to explore the following concepts in greater detail: Fire protection/suppression systems, Building Construction and Exit Drill in the Home (EDITH) and other Home Safety Programs.

Fire technology has expanded in recent years, providing for important fire safety management components. This includes construction of more fire retardant buildings and implementation of fire codes and OSHA regulations that require certain safety standards be acknowledged and followed in commercial environments. Residents may also benefit from fire prevention measures geared toward education and safety. Some fire safety measures applicable to the home may also be applied in a commercial setting. For example, use of an emergency evacuation route is an essential fire safety plan with residential and commercial applications. The most critical components of fire safety management are examined in greater detail below.

FIRE PROTECTION/SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS

Planning and preparation are often the key to safety in the event of a fire or any other emergency. The lessons learned in an emergent situation are often critical to prevention of damage in future emergencies. Fire protection and suppression systems were created with safety in mind; these systems fulfill some basic needs including detection, notification and suppression of fires. Alarm systems are obviously structured to notify occupants of a building in the event that a fire occurs. They also serve to summon the assistance of firefighters should an emergent situation occur. Alarm systems were not always required in commercial manufacturing plants. A majority of older structures in fact had very few protective structures in place to ensure the safety of occupants and firefighters. These standards have changed however in contemporary times. Use of fire alarm systems often goes hand in hand with fire suppression systems, which act to reduce the severity of a fire once started. In some instances, in the case of a small fire, a fire suppression system may be all that is necessary to put a fire out.

Traditionally the most commonly utilized form of fire suppression system is automatic sprinkler systems. These systems are reliable for a majority of structures including commercial, industrial, institutional and residential buildings (IFSTA, 1998). Traditionally fire sprinkler systems were developed in an effort to minimize the damage that occurs by fire maintenance systems. The Factory Mutual Research Corporation recently conducted a survey indicating that as many as 70% of all minor structure fires are contained via use of sprinklers (IFSTA, 1998). Unfortunately despite the proven efficacy of such systems, they are still not utilized in a majority of buildings constructed before certain legislation dictated that structures utilized safety measures.

Despite the seemingly common sense methodology behind fire suppression systems particularly sprinklers, major accidents and threats to human safety still occur. This was exemplified in January of 2000 when a fire broke out in a freshman dormitory on the campus of Seton Hall University in South Orange, NJ. In the devastating fire three students were killed and an additional 62 were injured (Patterson, 2000). The residence halls were typical of many in college environments; there were no fire suppression systems installed in certain older portions of the campus.

Since the accident a university wide plan has been undertaken to ensure that sprinkler systems are adequately installed in all areas of student living facilities. Accidents like these highlight the need for stricter examination and regulation regarding fire safety and protection in buildings.

In a survey conducted by the National Fire Prevention Association, more than 1,500 fires were reported in college dormitories in 1997, resulting in over 50 injuries and more than $7 million dollars in property damage (Patterson, 2000). Interestingly, some very basic fire prevention and safety measures were not in place that could have minimized the impacts of the fires that occurred, even preventing the damage altogether. In another poll conducted in early 2000, at least one dormitory in 67% of campuses surveyed was without an adequate fire suppression system. The overall results indicated that more than 43% of student dormitories were not appropriately protected.

Dormitories are not exclusive in their exposure to major fires. The well reported MGM fire is an example of a situation where a fire suppression system may have minimized damaged. A fire started in the deli in this situation, igniting a lot of plastic paneling in the restaurant. The fumes were sucked up through the HVAC and distributed throughout the building, so many victims died from poison smoke inhalation. If sprinklers had been installed, the fire might have been confined pretty quickly and the build up of smoke and toxins would have been minimized, so that a majority of people could have been evacuated before serious consequence occurred.

There are some common sense steps that all buildings and organizations can take to minimize the likelihood of injury, death and property loss in the event of a fire. The primary form of safety mechanism is ensuring that buildings are equipped with fire alarms and sprinklers or like minded fire suppression systems. These measures alone are often enough to result in adequate safety and reduction in property damage. Fire suppression systems have the capability of localizing a small emergency, providing valuable time for firefighter to arrive on scene and put out a fire completely before massive destruction is realized. Studies suggest that the chance of death occurring in a fire is reduced to one half in a building equipped with adequate fire suppression systems. Remarkably however, there are still a large number of buildings that were constructed before requirements for such suppression systems existed, and owners generally fail to implement such systems where they are currently lacking. One measure that individuals can take in such situations is assessing a given environment for fire suppression systems. If they are not available, potential occupants should consider implementing emergency evacuation plans, and practicing to increase the odds of safety and escape in the event of an emergency.

Smoke detectors are also a commonly utilized fire detection and alarm system that can prove life saving under certain situations. Smoke detectors are commonly utilized in individual residences, though they are also commonly utilized in commercial organization s as well..

A number of buildings can also be equipped with alarm systems that are designed to be set off manually. This type of system will provide a local warning to occupants indicating that a premises need be evacuated (IFSTA, 1998). Automatic fire alarm systems work much like smoke detectors. They are designed to detect heat and initiate a warning.

Some heat detectors are fixed temperature; these type of systems are older units, and relatively inexpensive compared to more modern types of systems (IFSTA, 1998). These systems are sometimes considered less efficient and more prone to give off false alarm; they are designed to activate at a slight elevation of temperature from the fixed temperature.

Other heat detector components and systems that utilize more advanced functionality include the following:

Fusible Devices: This is a fusible link, or type of fire alarm where two electrodes are held together by a piece of soft metal, the 'fusible' link, and used in conjunction with a sprinkler system. The metal holds the two level arms that blocks the sprinkler. The heat melts this and causes the sprinkler to go off Frangible Bulbs: Type of sprinkler with a glass bulb with a liquid in it that expands in it, shatters the bulb and opens the sprinkler valve

Continuous Line Detector: This is a type of fire alarm that consists of a cable with a conductive metal core; basically when there is a fire, two wires with an insulator pick up the heat, and the flow of electricity between the wires is interrupted, thus setting of the alarm

Bimetallic Detector: Similar to the above, more of a spot detector. Two pieces of metal that have to different thermal expansion characteristics; one metal will expand faster than the other when heated, and will flex or bend, initiating an alarm sequence

Smoke detectors vary from heat detectors as they detect smoke that is produced very early on in a fire's development (IFSTA, 1998). Smoke detectors do not require the generation of heat before they give off warning that a fire may have started. Many occupancies actually prefer smoke detectors because of their ability to detect fire early on. There are two basic types of smoke detectors available, the photoelectric and the ionization smoke detector.

A photoelectric detector traditionally uses a beam of light that is focused on a small area used to keep a switch open. When smoke obscures the path to the receiver, the current is not adequately produced, the switch closes and an alarm signal is issued (IFSTA, 1998). A ionization smoke detector responds by detecting the invisible products of combustion, or ionized particles, which enter a chamber and decrease the current flowing between place, resulting in an alarm signal.

Other safety equipment and alarm systems that can be sued include flame detectors and combination detectors. Regardless of the type of system utilized, it is important that each is maintained appropriately and tested on an annual or bi-annual basis.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION - FIRE PROOFING

Modern day buildings are generally constructed to be more heat and fire resistant. In times of old buildings would generally go up in flames at a moments notice so to speak. Many buildings were poorly constructed to retard fire. Among the problems with early systems, other than the lack of adequate fire suppression systems, include poor ventilations and the presence of easily flammable building materials.

Fire fighting mechanisms of old also were not equipped with advanced enough technology to combat serious fires at high altitudes. That has changed. Fire codes and regulations now dictate that buildings be constructed to better resist fire and enhance life protection.

Buildings generally break down into five types. Type one and two are generally the most fire resistive; Type I is fire resistive and Type II is non-combustible. For large buildings that will have large amounts of people or may contain large amounts of flammable materials, the building is generally going to be made out of large amounts of steel and glass, and thus more likely to stand up for longer periods of time when exposed to fire. Building codes are being changed in contemporary times to reflect the need to create more fire-safe structures. Gypsum lining is being used to line I beams to help support the weight of a building against gravity; steel might expand rapidly in a fire, thus fire resistive material is being used to reduce the capacity of these metals to expand. Fire codes are being modified to reflect the importance of utilization of such materials. If a building is designed to be more fire resistive, the likelihood that the people trapped inside will escape without harm is increased when protective measures are utilized.

Type III is ordinary construction, made of ordinary materials without any specific fire proofing. Type IV and V are wood frame and heavy timber, which are generally the most combustible. These are generally the average home or old factories and churches which might be made of heavy timber. These types of structures generally do not lend themselves as advanced protection as Type I and II buildings. Fire codes unfortunately cannot be made retroactive; one modern day problem within the fire service is the lack of ability to enforce new codes on old buildings. Fire protection agencies can't require owner/operators of older buildings to go back and retro-fit their buildings with new protection devices. Unfortunately, this can result in complication and deaths in the event of a serious fire.

Triangle Shirtwaste Factory Fire 1911

The triangle shirtwaste factory fire of 1911 is a classic example of how everything could go wrong in a fire went wrong. This fire was considered the worst factory fire to occur in the history of New York City (Jackson, 1995). The fire began on the eight floor of the building; the Triangle Company occupied the top three of ten floors, and five hundred women were employed there, the majority of whom were young women aged thirteen to twenty three. The proprietors had locked the doors leading to the exits on the evening in question to keep the women at their machines. The fire spread quickly and was fed by the thousands of pounds of fabric the women used to sew with.

The firefighters attempting to put out the fire arrived quickly but their equipment only extended to the sixth floor, and many of the life safety nets broke as groups of three or more women attempted to escape the burning building. 146 women died in less than fifteen minutes in the fire, more than in any other fire in the city with the exception of individuals aboard the General Slocum in 1904 (Jackson, 1995).

There were many factors that contributed to the severity of this fire. These include the following:

Contents and structure of the building were such that the fire rapidly grew and spread

Additionally, flammable contents were piled up in the floors where the women were working

No stand pipe system existed

Unsafe fire safety practices were followed

No adequate ventilation systems were available

There was no evacuation system established to evacuate the building

Under these situations, there fire department was very limited in their ability to fight this fire. Under modern construction codes, this fire might have been minimized allowing a greater chance for survival. Regardless of construction however, the occupants did not have an adequate emergency evacuation plan from which to rely on in the event of an emergency. Even worse, they were trapped in their building by the building owner.

This fire can be compared to modern day technology where buildings are designed to resist heat. Most of the buildings constructed during the time of the Triangle Fire disaster were not designed for maximum heat resistance. In a majority of situations in contemporary society also, frequent fire inspections are required in buildings housing large numbers of employees. Additionally, fire evacuation plans are required. In modern times also, the fire fighting technology is improved so fires are put out a lot faster and more efficiently.

Fire codes have also been developed to ensure building safety by ensuring things like all fire doors have to open out so people do not pile up. The wide bars enable the door to open up (often called panic doors). Large numbers of people trying to escape a burning building would probably be too panicked to find a doorknob and turn it. Additional safety precaution measures fire codes have helped establish include the use of exit lights. Exit lights are required in most major buildings; in addition they have to be illuminated independently of the buildings electrical system. Fire exists have to be clearly marked; an individual shouldn't go very far into a building. Doors leading into stairwells should have automatic shutting mechanisms but can't be locked.

HVAC systems also are now utilized to help prevent fire. HVAC systems are sometimes programmed to operate to vent smoke and products of combustion out and away from stairways. They can also be shut down to retard the spread of fire and smoke.

EDITH - Exit Drills in the Home - Home Safety Programs

EDITH was designed primarily with homeowners in mind. It's application to home owners will first be examined, with a relation to the overall safety of modern day buildings examined next.

Exit drills in the home" is any type of prepared home to get out of a residence in the event of a fire. These consist largely of the occupants sitting down and explaining to each other the appropriate actions to take in the event of a fire, exploration of the appropriate escape routes in the event of a fire, and the establishment of a meeting place to gather once people are out of danger. EDITH plans are only useful if they are utilized, thus families are encouraged to practice them once or twice so they are prepared in the event of an emergency.

EDITH can be adapted to serve the needs of commercial occupancies as well. All buildings should have drawn out evacuation and emergency exit plans to minimize the chance of injury of loss of life in the event of a fire. These plans should be practiced. Employees should be aware of exit and evacuation routes, and should know to meet in a designated meeting space to check in during an emergency. Such actions may serve to limit the opportunity for damage to occur in the even of a disaster.

THE 'SCIENCE' BEHIND FIRE SAFETY AND PROTECTION

The protection engineering is based on realities that more people are killed in fires by smoke and products of combustion than anything else. A lot of fire protection has been geared at making it easier to exit the building, why things like having HVAC systems that vent out of hallways and stairwells and having doors that open out have become important. Paint and carpet have also been examined to identify what types of off gas these materials will exude when they combust.

The next biggest threat is the safety of firefighter from the collapse of a building. Many firefighters that get killed are usually stuck or lost in a building. They run out of air. Thus one of the factors that is emphasized is safety through building construction, and knowing the building, type of building, what is made out of, will influence the plans of how to attack a fire.

Despite departments and fire safety manager's best efforts at protection and education, accidents still occur. This is exemplified by the recent tragedies occurring in night clubs throughout the United States. Recently a night club fire in Rhode Island resulted in the deaths of numerous young people.

Some other historical events had occurred that should clue people in that some of the deadliest fires now faced are in clubs and dance halls. An example of these is listed in the table below:

492 dead, Cocoanut Grove club, Boston, Nov. 28, 1942. Cause unknown.

198 dead, Rhythm Night Club dance hall, Natchez, Miss., April 23, 1940. Cause unknown.

165 dead, Beverly Hills Supper Club, Southgate, Ky., May 28, 1977. Defective wiring.

100 dead, The Station nightclub, West Warwick, R.I., Feb. 20, 2003. Pyrotechnics suspected.

87 dead, Happy Land Social Club, The Bronx, New York, March 25, 1990. Arson.

40 dead, dance hall, West Plains, Mo., April 13, 1928 (explosion). Cause unknown.

32 dead, upstairs Bar, New Orleans, June 24, 1973. Arson.

25 dead, Puerto Rican Social Club, New York City, Oct. 24, 1976. Arson.

24 dead, Gulliver's Discotheque, Port Chester, N.Y., June 30, 1974. Arson fire in nearby bowling alley spread to disco.

Source: World Almanac, {online} InfoPlease Almanac, Facts on File, News Channel 10. From http://www.turnto10.com/clubfire/2179987/detail.html

More than 164 people were injured and over 20 dead in the nightclub fire that occurred in Rhode Island. A majority of people were frantically scrambling for exits but were trapped inside as the fire spread too rapidly for escape. In this particular instance, a concert was occurring where the use of pyrotechnics ignited a massive inferno. This lends credence to the idea that further education is necessary to prevent such disasters from occurring in the future. Much like in the Triangle fire where many of the women might have survived if the doors had not been locked, in this instance many people might have been saved if the band had not decided to 'play with fire.' In addition to the fire safety hazard that pyrotechnics presents, a majority of night clubbers are not sufficiently informed of exit ways or escape routes. Undoubtedly a majority of people on a night out do not consider an emergency evacuation plan. This is a gap that needs to be filled in the future perhaps, to prevent more needless tragedies from occurring.

A recent bout of fires such as the night club fires that occurred in Rhode Island and a similar emergency, the stampede in Chicago simply serve as the recognition that as fire departments get smaller and buildings get bigger, the biggest thing fire departments and services can do to protect themselves and others is try to influence how buildings are constructed and how people react in an emergency situation. Requiring buildings to have emergency evacuation plans is one step in the right direction. Perhaps EDITH can be expanded to apply to all environments including night clubs.

Technology can only take fire suppression so far; at least buildings built after today will have certain features, in order to prevent recurrences of disasters that occurred in the past as a result of inadequately built structures. Education perhaps however, will go much farther in preventing needless injuries and deaths.

To this extent, many organizations other than fire departments have become involved in the fire safety campaign. One example of this is OSHA, or the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA has enacted a number of educational standards and work safety measures in an effort to protect employees and workers from fire safety hazards. Among these requirements include the provision for training for workers regarding fire hazards. OSHA dictates that employees need to be trained in evacuation techniques should an employer require evacuation in an emergency. Fire safety training should also include training in the use of fire safety equipment such as fire extinguishers. Keep in mind however that not all organizations are required to have emergency action plans. When they are required however they are to incorporate the following components:

Adequate description of fire safety routes and procedures that workers should be required to follow method for accounting for all evacuated employees

Procedures for evacuation of disabled employees

Indications for preferred means of alerting employees to fire emergencies

Provisions for alarm systems that incorporate voice communication or sound signals that might include bells, whistles or horns to alert employees of emergencies

Emergency training, which may include emergency resuscitation training

Review of plan details with new employees whence they are hired

Review of plan details with all employees when the plan is changed in any was Source: http://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/fire-safety-factsheet.html

Another primary focus of fire safety management in contemporary departments is the concept of loss control. Loss control "promotes fire fighting as a craft" (IFSA, 1998). The purpose of philosophy behind loss control is the intention of minimizing the damage that might occur in the event of a fire, as well as provisions for optimal customer service recovery efforts.

Loss control is also known as salvage and overhaul. It is one of the few things the fire service has to offer in terms of service. Loss control includes trying to salvage or protect an occupancy and goods inside from fire and the effects of fire and water. Overhaul is the process of dismantling enough of a structure to ensure that a fire is actually out and will not recur.

PREVENTION

Prevention can't be emphasized enough related to fire safety management. The best protection against fire is prevention of fire to begin with. Prevention requires adequate education of the public to fire hazards. Fire education should include an introduction to the most common fire hazards.

These include the following:

Contents of the building are generally the number one fire safety hazard.

The number one hazard in homes is poor housekeeping.

Blocked access to fire extinguishers

Blocked access to fire exists

Fire doors and other doors locked when they shouldn't be expired fire extinguishers

Storage of materials that block access.

Certainly there are some situations that present a greater fire hazard than others. For example, in a building such as a hospital, there are numerous storage containers of potentially flammable liquids, such as pure oxygen. Pure oxygen is a combustible material that presents a natural fire hazard. Certain facilities have a higher risk than others of fire; for example an oxygen supplier would be considered a 'target hazard' because they have a ten thousand gallons of oxygen stored which is incredibly flammable. Knowledge of fire evacuation routes in a situation where a ten thousand gallon tank of explosive material is available is the best prevention and safety method. Proper instruction on the handling of flammable materials would also be beneficial in this situation.