Functionalists Sociology\'s Concern With Social Order and Stability

Functionalism in Sociology

The history of sociology is essentially a series of various competing paradigms and views of society and about how society is constructed as well as its nature and function As Thomas Kuhn pointed out in his groundbreaking work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, all paradigms are to a certain extent influenced by subjective predilections and views and are therefore never truly objective. However functionalism, as one of the many sociological paradigms, built its view of society and the way in which society's function on the basis of scientific objectivity. As will be discussed in this paper, the functionalist view was also influenced by the social, cultural and historical milieu which formed its context.

The functionalist approach to the study of society is premised on the assertion that every society needs stability and order to function correctly and that this order is maintained by the interaction between the different "parts" or institutions in that society. Essentially the functionalist model of society is one where the functional integration of societal institutions is the core of social harmony and health. Therefore the terms balance and equilibrium in a sociological sense are extremely important in the functionalist approach.

Functionalism posits two central concepts as its main points of emphasis. These are the application of the scientific method and objectivity in the analysis of society and the analogy between the individual organism and societal functioning. ( FUNCTIONALISM) This analogy provides the model for the interdependent way in which society functions to maintain order and stability.

Talcott Parsons is one of the modern exponents and theorists of the functionalist approach to society. He was of the view that there are certain stable structural categories responsible for the functioning and perpetuation of the society as a whole. He focused his theoretical concerns on one of these categories or institutions, namely medicine, to illustrate his ideas.

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In order to fully understand and discuss functionalism in Sociology it is important to briefly refer to the scientific method in Sociology, as this provides the basis for the functionalist approach to the study of society. Sociology as a discipline is part of the scientific examination and understanding of human behavior and society. In this sense, and as a science, it attempts to " ... discover the causes and effects that arise in social relations among persons and in the intercommunication and interaction among persons and groups." ( Sociology) As a scientific enterprise sociology also includes within its parameters the ... study of the customs, structures, and institutions that emerge from interaction, of the forces that hold together and weaken them, and of the effects that participation in groups and organizations have on the behaviour and character of persons."

(Sociology)

Sociology therefore subscribes to the accepted scientific method of the other natural sciences. However there is much debate and contention about the nature of the scientific method and whether it is entirely applicable to sociological discourse.

The history of sociology and its relation to science also meant that, in order to establish itself as a recognized discipline with academic status, sociology needed to conform to the dominant scientific or rational view of the time. As the famous sociologist Robert Merton stated.

In order to interpret and discuss social reality we must first have a picture, some sort of pattern, or an image of the interrelationships amongst the many variables that circumscribe human interaction. The SCIENTIFIC METHOD or METHODOLOGY provides a systematic, organized series of steps that insures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem. It provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis, and helps to promote reliability and validity (consistency and accuracy).

(Keel, R.O. 2003)

The above view of sociology as a particularly scientific enterprise relates to the objective and value neutral approach to social order and stability that was adopted by the functionalists. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was one of founders of this approach to sociology whose writings form the basis for functionalist theory. He made use of scientific and statistical techniques in sociological research. Thomas Hobbs was possibly one of the precursors to the functionalist view of society who saw society and social order as essentially a social contract between various groups and individuals. The social contract is

... A special kind of covenant, namely, one in which each man agrees with every other man to transfer his natural right to govern himself to a sovereign authority (a single person or a group of persons) and in which each man in common with every other man confers upon this sovereign authority his power to govern himself.

(Mintz, S.I. 1970. p 34).

While this is close to the functionalist ideal of consensus, there are many differences between this view and strict functionalism.

The central perspective of functionalism is based on two interrelated aspects. Firstly, the application of the scientific method to the objective world and secondly the analogy between the way the human organism functions and social order. Both these aspects point to the emphasis on order and balance for the functionalists. In terms of society this means that social order is created and kept in equilibrium and balance by the relationship between the different institutions in the society. Without this necessary balance there would be chaos and a breakdown of social functioning

The importance of the scientific method for functionalism and the organic approach to sociological analysis is that it is based on the assertion and belief that "... one can study the social world in the same ways as one studies the physical world." (FUNCTIONALISM) This means that the social world for the functionalist is one which, like the other sciences, is "objectively real" and therefore can be studied using interviews, surveys and statistics.

Another very important aspect of the functionalist approach is that, using the scientific view of objectivity, a study of society can be value free. In other words, objective studies of social phenomena as functional aspects of the whole are not based on any value judgment but are relatively free from any value assumptions or prescriptions.

The essence of the functional approach lies in the organic analogy. This analogy to the way in which the human body works implies that a society works well and is healthy according to the harmonious functioning of the different institutions in that society. These parts or institutions function to maintain the society or the whole much in the same way that the different organs of the body maintain health through their proper functioning. It is also imperative that the different institutions in a society function in harmony and in such a way as to maintain and sustain the complex working of the entire society.

Drawing on metaphors from biology, functionalist sociologists view societies as wholes or systems, which consist of interacting and self-regulating elements. Each of the elements works to maintain the whole, so ensuring the stability or order of the system.

(Sociological theory and pharmacy practice research)

Therefore, in this view, the various institutions in a society such as education, religion, heath and medical etc., are all relevant only in terms of their particular interlinking functions in relation to the society as a whole. For example, the institution of religion is seen as an important functional aspect of society " ... just as the organs of the body have functions which are necessary for the body's survival." (FUNCTIONALISM) A clear definition of the functional approach is " ... A theory stressing the importance of interdependence among all behavior patterns and institutions within a social system to its long-term survival." (Functionalism (sociology) Wikipedia)

Using the example of religion the functionalist would see the role of this institution within the overall functioning of the society as a means of dealing with fears and anxieties which would otherwise lead to stress and which in turn might result in a dysfunctional society. From this perspective the institution of religion fulfils an important function in all societies. A social function is defined as "the contribution made by any phenomenon to a larger system of which the phenomenon is a part." (FUNCTIONALISM)

Another central aspect of functionalism in sociology is the importance of order and stability. This view, which has been questioned by later theoretical perspectives, states that order is essential and vital to the healthy functioning of the whole society. This again refers to the analogy to the healthy organic functioning of the individual where all the organs must work in harmony to produce a healthy living environment.

It is also useful to relate the emphasis on order and stability in functionalism to social and historical contexts. After the First and Second World Wars society was seen by many as a problem solving science, to remedy the ills of society and to " ... solve the problems arising out of the First World War, mass immigration, urbanization, depression, and various types of crimes associated with these." (The Paradigmatic Status of Sociology) Therefore there is a case to be made for the view that the functionalist emphasis on order and stability become popular and relevant due to a certain social and historical contexts.

In terms of the need for stability the analogy between society and an organism therefore aimed at a situation of homeostasis where " ... social systems work to maintain equilibrium and to return to it after external shocks disturb the balance among social institutions. "(FUNCTIONALISM)

This state of order and social equilibrium is achieved through the socialization process. This means that in order for an institution to function correctly the members of the society must be socialized into or internalize the various norms and values of the institution. This also leads to another significant functionalist concept which is the consensus value that socialization creates. Consensus value is the agreement of the individuals as to the values of the society. "Functionalist analyses often focus on the individual, usually with the intent to show how individual behavior is molded by broader social forces." (FUNCTIONALISM) This is an essential component necessary for the stabilization of the various institutions in the society. Furthermore, consensus and socialization are important in ensuring the conformity of the individuals in a society. Without this conformity the society and its parts run the risk of destabilization. Conformity and consensus also refer to the particular social roles that the individual is expected to adhere to in society. These roles, whether they are parent, priest or plumber, are all "prescribed" in terms of the institutional requirements of the society.

Where controls are not created through value consensus the society must employ various special control mechanisms in order to ensure that the stability and unity of the social whole is maintained. "These social control mechanisms range from sanctions imposed informally -- sneering and gossip, for example -- to the activities of certain formal organizations, like schools, prisons, and mental institutions." ( FUNCTIONALISM)

Therefore, through socialization, consensus and control mechanisms the important aspect of order and stability is maintained. The functionalist sees these controls as essential to the correct and stable functioning of any society. However it is precisely this emphasis on order and control that is criticized by many contemporary sociologists.

(Paragraph 3) Criticism

There are numerous critiques of the functionalist approach. The following are some of these central criticisms.

One of the central critiques is that functionalism is guilty of the error of reification. This refers to the issue of talking about " ... social institutions having "needs" and "purposes" in the way that human beings can be considered to have such things? " ("A" Level Sociology) In other words, this aspect focuses on the fallacy of discussing that is not human as human or alive. This also relates to the central critique of functionalism which is the reduction of individualism

Another common criticism is the insistence that every aspect of society must have a function. This view is prone to tautology as well as being limited in its perception of the depth and complexity of any society where many aspects do not have a distinct "function." This insistence on the primacy of function has also been questioned by other theoretical schools of thought which see dysfunction and conflict as having an important role in society. Conflict theorists for example would see various aspects which are essentially dysfunctional from a functionalist point-of-view, as essential to the development and stability of a society. This view suggests that "Conflict is not necessarily a negative aspect of society since it produces social change." (TRADITIONAL SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS)

One of the central critiques of functionalism is that it does not, as a theory, sufficiency provide for the reality and need for social change. Radical change and revolutions in a society are not adequately catered for within the ambit of functionalism. In other words, the central criticism in this regard is that functionalism, while it does provide for insights which contribute to the sociological analysis of society, is also limited in terms of explaining many aspects of social, change and growth. The emphasis in the functionalist approach is on value consensus and the socialization process.

This leads to a cardinal critique; namely the over-emphasis on order and control at the expense of individuality, human progress and growth. Functionalism can all too easily be used as a legitimatization or excuse for oppression and the denial of human individuality and expression. Within the context of the main theoretical stance there is too much emphasis on conformity and too little attention given to need for individual expression in society outside the prerequisite for conformity and order. Socialization itself can be seen as an important contributory factor in the maintenance of order, but it can also be seen as a destructive aspect which impinges and retrains individual growth and liberty. " ... because people are, by definition, socialized into a set of existing cultural values (and they live their lives according such values), it follows that all human activity / choice effectively takes place in the context of this institutionally-determined cultural order. "("A" Level Sociology)

The functionalist emphasis on functional dependence also stresses the maintenance of the status quo and therefore does not provide the necessary theoretical foundation for change in society. In a theoretical sense, functionalism does not take into account of change and conflict as ubiquitous and important aspects of society.

Another related and central critique is the underlining assumption in functionalist approach that all institutions are necessary "good" or beneficial just because they contribute to order. This does not take account of the fact that many institutions can be oppressive and repressive. For example many theories and particularly those from a Marxist point-of-view, see the institution of religion as a central form of oppression within the context of capitalistic society. Another example is that "Radical feminists have also argued that the family group is an oppressive and exploitative group, this time in favour of men. ("A" Level Sociology)