Gemini space program achievements in Cold War competition

Gemini Space Program

The Gemini mission had as one of its goals a spacewalk by the astronauts and this was an important goal because this was a time known as the 'Cold War' and the Soviet Union, the second greatest power in the world had already had astronauts perform a spacewalk. The United States was running behind it seemed at the time. . Due to the brief nature of this study there are contributions that the Gemini space program made that have not been reviewed and it is therefore suggested that in order to better understand the contributions of the Gemini space program that a more in-depth study be conducted.

Gemini Space Program

The Gemini mission had as one of its goals a spacewalk by the astronauts and this was an important goal because this was a time known as the 'Cold War' and the Soviet Union, the second greatest power in the world had already had astronauts perform a spacewalk. The United States was running behind it seemed at the time.

Mission Summary

The Gemini space program was created specifically to teach astronauts the techniques that are involved in activities such as "…docking, rendezvous, long-term flight and space-walks." (Think Quest, nd) The Gemini program uses a two-person aircraft and it is from this that the space program derived its name after the sign of the zodiac that represents 'the twins' or Gemini.

Gemini 1 & 2

The first two Gemini craft are reported to have been unmanned satellites and the first manned mission under the Gemini program was the Gemini 3, which carried two astronauts and was launched from Cape Canaveral on the 23rd day of March, 1965.This mission was the first ever to change the orbit direction. (Think Quest, nd, paraphrased)

Gemini 3

The primary objectives of Gemini 3 were to 1) demonstrate manned orbital flight; 2) evaluate the two-man design, 3) demonstrate and evaluate the tracking network, 4) demonstrate the Orbital Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS) capability in orbital maneuvers and in retrofire backup, 5) demonstrate controlled reentry and landing, 6) evaluate major spacecraft subsystems, 7) demonstrate systems checkout, prelaunch, and launch procedures, 8) demonstrate and evaluate recovery procedures and systems. This was primarily a testing shakedown for the new, maneuverable Gemini capsule." (NASA, 2000) The secondary objectives were stated as follows: (1) to evaluate flight crew equipment, biomedical instrumentation, and personal hygiene system, 2) to perform 3 experiments, 3) to evaluate low-level longitudinal oscillations (Pogo) of the Gemini Launch Vehicle and 4) general photographic coverage in orbit." (NASA, 2000)

Gemini 4

The Gemini 4 spacecraft was launched on June 3, 1965 and was manned by Edward h. White and James A. McDivitt, The first ever space walk was performed by Edward H. White while this spacecraft was in orbit. On August 21, 1965, the Gemini 5 space craft was launched which was manned by Gordon Cooper and Charles Conrad. (NASA, 2000)

Gemini 5

The Gemini 5 mission was a "long-term, manned space flight" and was able to orbit for 190 hours and 55 minutes and this "despite a malfunction in the spacecraft's fuel cell system. (Think Quest, nd, paraphrased) The primary objectives of the Gemini spacecraft was to: (1) evaluate effects of prolonged space flight; (2) demonstrate performance of spacecraft and systems in 4-day flight; (3) evaluate procedures for crew and work cycles; (4) eating schedules; and (5) real-time flight planning. (NASA, ) Secondary objectives stated include: (1) demonstrate and evaluate EVA and control by use of HHMU and tether; (2) station keeping rendezvous with second stage of GLV; (3) evaluate spacecraft systems; (4) make in-and-out of plane maneuvers; (5) further test OAMS retro backup capability; and (6) perform 11 experiments. (NASA, 2000)

Gemini 6 & 7

Gemini 6, launched on December 15, 1965 was manned by Walter Schirra and Thomas Stafford, and Gemini 7 was manned by Frank Borman and James A. Lovell, and was actually launched prior to Gemini 6 by 12 days. The two craft are reported to have flown in formation, rotating slowly around each other and remaining that way for 3 entire orbits around the Earth. The two crafts came as close to 30 cm to one another at one point in the mission. Gemini 7 orbited the Earth 206 times and stayed aloft for a reported 330 hours and 35 minutes. This orbit set a new duration record for space flight. (Think Quest, nd, paraphrased)

Gemini 8 & 9

Gemini 8 is reported to have launched on the 16th of March 1996, and was manned by Neil A. Armstrong and David R. Scott. Gemini 8 completed the first ever successful docking with the Agena 8 satellite however, upon docking the two spacecraft begin spinning since one of the thrusters on the Gemini 8 would not stop jetting. Gemini 8 had to make an emergency landing in the Pacific Ocean. (Think Quest, nd, paraphrased)

Gemini 9 is reported to have launched on June 3, 1966, and to be manned by Thomas P. Stafford and Eugene A. Cernan and was in flight for a period of 72 hours and 21 minutes. Eugene Cernan was the second U.S. astronaut to perform a space walked and involved the use of an Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU) although it was used only a short time due to problems with the AMU. (Think Quest, nd, paraphrased)

Science or Aircraft Description

It was the goal of NASA for land man on the moon and a search for the methods that would accomplish this objective was conceptualized as either: (1) direct ascent; (2) earth orbit rendezvous; and (3) Lunar orbit rendezvous. (2000) In the beginning direct ascent appeared to be the simplest method that could be utilized with a launch vehicle boosting a spacecraft directly to the moon to land however, the booster would be required to be monstrous since the lunar spacecraft would be required to carry fuel for the landing and takeoff. This required that the Gemini program develop the rendezvous and docking techniques and that the new spacecraft would have its own propulsion system. The propulsion system was housed in an equipment module located at the rear of the spacecraft which was "the retro module" containing the solid rockets used to slow the craft for reentry. Orbital altitude maneuvering jets (OAMS) were contained in the craft's fuselage." (NASA, 2000 ) The following illustration shows a cutaway view of the Gemini spacecraft.

Figure 1

Cutaway View of the Gemini Spacecraft

Source: Adcock (2010)

There were little complications as the new spacecraft for the Gemini program was designed however engineers did debate several issues: (1) the recovery system; (2) NASA desired to land on land rather than water and an engineer named Francis Rogallo at Langley Research Center developed a "flexible wing called a paraglider" relating that he as well as his colleagues "were convinced that this concept could return a spacecraft to a smooth land touchdown." (NASA, 2000) NASA was interested and Rogallo and his team were commissioned to develop the system. The following illustration shows the design of Rogallo and team.

Figure 2

Paraglider Gemini

Source: Adcock (2010)

It is reported that engineers were examining launch vehicles while the other designs were progressing however, the Atlas, which had been used for the Mercury would not be powerful enough for the Gemini as it weighed 8500 pounds and was a two man rather than a one man spacecraft. The Von Braun team had quickly traveled to the Redstone Arsenal located in Huntsville, Alabama to work on the Explorer satellite and were working on a moon rocket booster -- the Saturn which was to produce 1.5 million pounds of thrust which was more than a sufficient amount to boost the new spacecraft into orbit. It is reported that the storability of the fuels also were a positive factor for NASA as the vehicle could be fuel without being unloaded and refueled traveling through extended holds with cryogenic fuels such as liquid oxygen. (NASA, 2000, paraphrased) The following figure shows the final Gemini design.

Figure 3

Final Gemini Design

Source: Adcock (2010)

The following figure shows the Gemini Ejection Seat.

Figure 4

Gemini Ejection Seat

Source: Adcock (2010)

The Space Rendezvous Apparatus and Method Patent was issued in July, 1966 and reports that it is an invention that "relates to an apparatus and method for effecting a space rendezvous and more particularly relates to an in-transit or linear rendezvous mode of space transport employing trajectory operations conducted by two or more individually launched space units adapted to rendezvous in-transit for assembly into a single spacecraft." (United State Patent Office, 1966)

It is reported by the U.S. Patent Office that when a rocket booster is involved in connection with this type of operation "the booster has been designed to effect a docking in rendezvous with a payload before the rocket began its planned, out-or-orbit flight. The limitations inherent in designing an apparatus for use in connection with 'orbital rendezvous' operations severely restrict features of reliability, safety, vulnerability, availability and versatility, which factors are of paramount concern to the efficient achievement of any particular space mission." (United State Patent Office, 1966) What was provided by this invention was an apparatus and method in which space rendezvous and docking are not any longer restricted to satellite orbits but were after this invention able to be performed at any altitude "and in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits wherein the rendezvousing objects proceed at or near local escape velocity." (United State Patent Office, 1966) This type of apparatus is stated to comprise "a rocket booster having a thrush unit forming a uniquely arranged docking face on the fore-end thereof adapted to receive and be coupled to a manned or unmanned payload unit pursuant to in-transit space rendezvous." (United State Patent Office, 1966) Also enabled by this invention was the ability of two objects to be able to rendezvous and dock in 'high energy orbit'…" (United State Patent Office, 1966)

Summary & Recommendations

This work has examined the Gemini space program and information gained in this specific study includes information concerning the design and construction of a rocket booster system for the Gemini program that had not been previously utilized by NASA which allowed for rendezvous whether the spacecraft was in an parabolic or hyperbolic orbits and as well the thrust of the unit enabled the rendezvous and docking of two craft in a high energy orbit. Due to the brief nature of this study there are contributions that the Gemini space program made that have not been reviewed and it is therefore suggested that in order to better understand the contributions of the Gemini space program that a more in-depth study be conducted.