Gender and religion: intersections and contemporary issues

Gender and Religion

Women are viewed in many different forms by different religions. Some consider women as the integral part of the religion or of the society while some provide several restrictions for women when it comes to their beliefs and traditions. Whatever the gender role differences are - particularly when it comes to religion - the fact remains that such gender role differences are all aimed at promoting and maintaining the values, beliefs and traditions of a particular religion.

Gender Roles

In Orthodox Judaism

In the traditional Judaism's point-of-view, the roles that women play may be a lot different from the roles of the men, however it does not necessarily mean that women's role are of lesser important. For the members of the traditional Judaism, women are believed to be gifted with their so-called "binah" which can be in the form of intuition, understanding and intelligence (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002).

The rabbis inferred this from the fact that woman was "built" (Gen. 2:22) rather than "formed" (Gen. 2:7), and the Hebrew root of "build" has the same consonants as the word "binah"..." (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002)

This is the very reason why women have held various and important position in Judaism, even on the early biblical times. Women were being consulted for opinions and possible course of actions. In fact, women were also tasked to teach their husbands about the Torah.

Many rabbis over the centuries have been known to consult their wives on matters of Jewish law relating to the woman's role, such as laws of kashrut and women's cycles. The wife of a rabbi is referred to as a rebbetzin, practically a title of her own, which should give some idea of her significance in Jewish life..." (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002)

However, even if the women were considered important in Judaism, they still prevent the women from attaining higher education or religious pursuits. This is for the reason that most members of Judaism fear that women who will receive higher education will then "neglect their primary duties as wives and mothers." But is some other aspects, women have almost equal rights with men. Women can buy or sell properties, establish their own sets of contracts and do other business activities (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002).

When it comes to marriage life, women were also consulted. Women have the right to be consulted with regard to their marriage. In fact, marital life is believed to be the responsibility of the females than of the males. More so, in traditional Judaism, forced sexual relationships are not permitted and are considered a crime (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002).

Men do not have the right to beat or mistreat their wives. In cases of rape, a woman is generally presumed not to have consented to the intercourse, even if she enjoyed it, even if she consented after the sexual act began and declined a rescue..." (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002).

From this point-of-view, it is very clear that the gender roles of women in the traditional Judaism context is that of being a responsible "wife, mother and keeper of the household" (http://www.jewfaq.org/women.htm,2002). All aspects that will be related to motherhood, household activities and duties of a wife will be handled solely by the women. Beyond this point, women still play a critical role but on a restricted level.

In Islam

In Muslim societies women and men are expected to behave in accordance with social, cultural or religious codes. They have various reasons from doing so but what is most dominant is the fact that they want to make create a line separating men from women and that they want to distinguish between what is considered to be 'masculine' or 'feminine'. These gender roles are learned within a particular social and cultural context. More so, these gender roles are affected by factors such as education and economics (Inglehart, 2002).

In practice, gender roles are often affecting women thereby adversely impeding their self-determination in areas such as their socio-economic status, status within the family, health, life expectation, independence, freedom and even their rights (Inglehart, 2002).This clearly reflects the gender bias that is happening inside the Muslim communities. For them, women are still the weaker sex and males are the dominant ones. For them, women are essential for male for they should act as their partners... And because they are essential for men, Muslim societies tolerate men from having numerous women (provided that men can financially support all his women and his offspring equally). For them, women are accessories to the male's harem and that the males are the ones who would ensure on the availability of food, shelter and other basic commodities, while the women should stay at home and manage what is being given by the males. For the Islam, women should not be in command... The decision making is the sole responsibility of the males. In short, women in Islam, are often expected to be obedient wives and mothers remaining within the family environment, whereas men are expected to be protectors and caretakers of the family

Although the Qur'an views women and men to be equal in human dignity, this spiritual or ethical equality has not been reflected in most Muslim laws. Like for example, women do not have equal rights to make independent decisions in relation to choice of marriage or even of their partners. Still, women are not the deciding factors when it comes to obtaining a divorce and custody of the children (Inglehart, 2002).

There have been various reactions from the female side. Reformists and feminists have challenged women's lack of rights and lack of control over their own lives in Muslim Laws through the various techniques discussed in the section (Inglehart, 2002).

Central to this challenge has been the reinterpretation of Qur'anic verses which seemingly privilege men over women and reinforce gender roles. Qur'an verse 4.34, which refers to men as 'guardians' (qawamun) (over women), has been used to justify gender roles. Likewise, this verse is used to give merit as the why men enjoy certain privilege over women. Reformist and feminist scholars have argued that the concept of guardianship has formed the basis of particular "gendered roles" in Muslim societies (Inglehart, 2002).

Scholars have also explored how verse 4.34 has been interpreted and used to limit women's autonomy, freedom of movement and access to economic opportunities and independence. They found out that the concept of 'guardianship' actually only meant to ensure that a woman who is bearing and nurturing children, is provided for (by her husband) whilst undertaking this task. Meanwhile, feminist scholars believe that this economic safeguard has been extended through the concept of guardianship to create a rigid division of gender roles and social control of men over women. This extension of male 'guardianship' over women has become embodied in Muslim Laws and is therefore embedded in Muslim societies (Inglehart, 2002).

One of the key reasons put forward for justifying male guardianship over women within the family and in society at large, is the idea that female sexuality needs to be controlled, but the reason behind this idea is still unknown.. The concept of guardianship, rigid gender roles and male control over women's sexuality are also tools to impose and enforce heterosexuality (Inglehart, 2002).

In Buddhism

Buddhism gradually spread from India throughout Asia to Central Asia, Sri Lanka, Tibet, Southeast Asia, as well as to East Asian countries such as China, Korea, and Japan. With approximately 560 million followers, Buddhism is considered a major world religion They follow many different forms of Buddhism, but all traditions are characterized by non-violence, lack of dogma, tolerance of differences, and, usually, by the practice of meditation (http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html,2005).

Buddhism is a philosophy and path of practice. It is considered as a philosophy because it is based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddh-rtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. The basic tenets of Buddhist teaching are straightforward and practical: nothing is fixed or permanent; actions have consequences; change is possible. Therefore, Buddhism addresses itself to all people irrespective of race, nationality, or gender. It teaches practical methods which enable people to realize and utilize its teachings in order to transform their experience, to be fully responsible for their lives and to develop the qualities of Wisdom and Compassion (http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html,2005).

Buddhism follows the Indian's belief of a patriarchal context, hence the women are expected to be "subservient to men." Women are solely dependent to their male partners or male counterparts (http://www.faithnet.org.uk/KS4/Social%20Harmony/buddhismequality.htm,2006).

Women's roles are o lesser important than the males'. Women are not allowed to serve as nuns. They are not allowed to take part in some Buddhist's religious activities. In fact, most monks believe that women are hindrance to their enlightenment.

In Buddhist's point-of-view, women should only be allowed to take part in their religious activities if they are to be reborn as males. But until they have done so, they are to remain as mere "shadows" of the male populace. It will be the males who will decide on most aspects even on the family and/or marital issues, the households, the "church" and of course the society. Women are just mere followers of what the males would decide.

In Taoism

Taoism is a combination of psychology and philosophy and evolved into a religious faith in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became one of the three great religions of China. Taoism currently has about 20 million followers. About 30,000 Taoists live in North America, 1,720 in Canada (http://ssd1.cas.pacificu.edu/,2005).

Taoist concepts, beliefs and practices include (http://ssd1.cas.pacificu.edu/,2005):

Tao is the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life. "The Tao surrounds everyone and therefore everyone must listen to find enlightenment."

Each believer's goal is to become one with the Tao.

Taoists strongly promote health and vitality.

Taoists believe that the five main organs and orifices of the body correspond to the five parts of the sky: water, fire, wood, metal and earth.

Each person must nurture the Ch'i (air, breath) that has been given to them.

Development of virtue is one's chief task. The Three Jewels to be sought are compassion, moderation and humility.

Taoists follow the art of "wu wei," which is to let nature take its course. For example, one should allow a river to flow towards the sea unimpeded; do not erect a dam which would interfere with its natural flow.

Taoists is kind to other individuals, in part because such an action tends to be reciprocated.

Taoists believe that "people are compassionate by nature...left to their own devices [they] will show this compassion without expecting a reward."

With regards to the gender roles in Taoism, women play a very significant role in this type of believers (Kohn, 2006). Women are not considered as the "high and mighty" nor the dominating gender, however, their role to the society and to the religion itself is of utmost importance.