Instructional design as process, discipline, science, and reality

Instructional Design

Scrapbook of Instructional Design

Section 1 Instructional Design - Definition

Instructional Design is easily defined by its components - the design of instruction. It is the plan used to deliver knowledge. Since the first parent was presented with the challenge of rearing the next generation, humans have been involved in instructional design. How do we teach what we know to someone else?

The foundation of instructional design as a field of study became a significant issue during World War II when the U.S. military was faced with the challenge of rapidly training large numbers of soldiers to perform complex tasks. The problem was addressed by behavioral psychologists. One such theorist was B.F. Skinner and his research into operant conditioning. The military trained personnel by breaking tasks into simpler subtasks and each subtask taught individually.

In the 1950's high schools and colleges were run like manufacturing plants. Students entered the doors and freshmen, moved through the machine and graduated as adults ready to contribute to the success of the community. This "process" was challenged by the 1983 with the publication of "A Nation at Risk" and Theodore Sizer's Horace's Compromise the following year.

Both addressed the need to teach the upcoming generations in a manner that is both relevant and rigorous. A standard's movement swept across the country - even mandated from the Oval Office. Again the idea of Instructional Design moved to the top of political and educational agendas.

Today Instructional Design in defined four ways: as process, discipline, science and reality. Instructional Design as process looks at the systematic development of instructional practices. It is the analysis of learning needs and the creation of an effective process that will meet those needs.

Instructional Design as a discipline shows the need of training professional instructional designers. Most colleges of education across the country include one or more courses in Instructional Design. Monies and resources have been invested in the research and development of instructional processes and strategies.

Instructional Design is also considered a science. Universities along with public and private organizations have researched the development, implementation and evaluation of learning processes. A current example of research-based instruction practices is Marzano's Nine. The Art and Science of Teaching: a Comprehensive Framework or Effective Instruction presents a model that addresses the needs of individual students' strengths and weaknesses while balancing the necessity of research-based data.

The last is Instructional Design as reality. This definition allows the process to begin at any point in the educational process. Instructors can reflect on prior lessons taught and make adjustments. In this reflective practice, the "science" of Instructional Design can be incorporated.

Each of these definitions is not particularly exclusive. Each instead contributes to a distinct aspect of the role Instructional Design currently plays in American education. Our country is charges with the task of creating and educated society and workforce. Now competing in global economies where knowledge is king, American students require a world-class education now more than ever.

Section 3: Models of Instructional Design

Most models of instructional design differ in certain respect, all include three necessary components: analysis, design, and evaluation. Two such models are the ADDIE Model and the Dick & Carey Model.

The most commonly used ID model is the ADDIE Model (McGriff, 2000). Each of the five steps produces and outcome that feeds into the next step. The first phase is the analysis phase where the audience and expected outcomes are defines. The design phase develops measurable objectives and instructional strategies. The development phrase is choosing the materials to be used in the lesson. Implementation is the process of teaching and learning process - student data or product is produces. The last step is the evaluation of the process, determining the adequacy of the instruction. As seen in the flowchart, evaluation occurs throughout the process and at any point the instructional designer can go back to the previous page.

The Dick and Carey Model (Dempsey, 2006) includes nine steps to instructional design. First identify goals - these may often be already defined as state standards. The second step is to conduct instructional analysis and determine specific learning outcomes. Next identify entry behavior or determine what students already know. The instructors can then write performance objectives as statements of observable (measurable) behaviors. Choose strategies and select materials. This stage involves trying out and revising the use if different instructional strategies and resources. Next student performance is measured. Lastly evaluate student learning both formatively and summatively.

The models are very similar in process. Goals are established, lessons are designed and learning is evaluated. The differences occur in that the latter model breaks down the steps into more defined pieces. Dick & Carey's Stages 1-3 are combined into the Analysis step of the ADDIE Model for instance.

Other differences between the two models are the linear flow of D&C's model, where ADDIE represents interactive and flexible guidelines to instruction design. The D&C Model is more specific in outlining the necessary steps. The ADDIE Model combines many complex steps into just one phase making the process seem less multifarious than it truly is.

In either case, effective instructional design in an intricate process requiring planning, data-driven decision making and a bit of trial and error.

Section 4: Principles and Models of Instructional Design

According to Elena Qureshi's Web page on instructional design:

The Kemp (1994) design model takes a holistic approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors in the learning environment are taken into consideration including subject analysis, learner characteristics, learning objectives, teaching activities, resources (computers, books, etc.), support services and evaluation. The process is iterative and the design is subject to constant revision. The immediate feel of being iterative and inclusive, and particularly the fact that the central focus is the learner needs and goals are the strengths of this model. There is also a focus on content analysis, as there would be in any educational design and a focus on support and service, which is not present in other ID models. Much like the Knirk and Gustafson design model, Kemp's model is also small scale and can be used for individual lessons.

In comparing Gange's Nine Steps of Instruction and Kemp's Design Model, several topics are included in both. Obviously both identify goals and objectives and making this information known to the student. Designing and delivering instructional experiences with specifically selected resources that will allow learners to master the objectives. The last is assessing student performance.

The differences between the two are visible in Gagne's nine steps following a sequential model of instruction - do this, then this, and this and end with this. The Kemp Model is a big picture view of instructional design. Here are all the things instructors need to take into consideration but not necessarily in a particular order. Kemps model does however give some guidance in knowing that planning, project management, support services and the summative evaluation are integral parts to the whole design process. Not something that is completed at any one point along the process.

The Knirk and Gustafson Model show a three step process including problem determination, design and development. The first stage includes identification of the problems, lesson organization and understanding learning prior knowledge. The design stage includes developing performance objectives and choosing instructional strategies. The final step in the development stage includes the development/gathering of teaching materials and resources, testing and revision of instruction if needed.

This model is somewhat a hybrid of the Gagne's Principals and the Kemp Model. While it follows a process from stage one to stage three, it recognizes the fact that, like Kemp, some processes so not necessarily have to occur - or should occur - in a particular order. Again, like the two before, all three essential parts of instruction design: goal setting, instruction, and assessment and evident in each. The main difference appears to be the structure and order of the instructional design process.

Section 5 - Sample Lesson Plan Using the Dick & Carey's Instructional Model

Subject Matter and Grade Level - Kindergarten Science

The Model - Dick & Carey's Instructional Model (and Gagne's 9)

The Lesson - Melting Away Numbers in parenthesis refer to Gagne's Nine.

Goals

Students will explore the property of water in three states: gas, liquid, and solid

Analyze Instruction

Students will explore the best way to melt ice cubes.

Students will explore the properties of melting snow

Students will explore the properties of evaporating water

Identify Entry Behavior (3)

Class will create a mind map (web) of everything they know about water.

Objectives (2)

Observe, ask questions and make predictions

Observe common objects using multiple senses

Ask questions based on experiences with objects, organisms, and events in the environment

Predict results of an investigation based on physical sciences

Participate in planning and conducting investigations, and recording data

Demonstrate safe behavior and appropriate procedures (e.g., use of instruments and materials) in all science inquiry

Participate in guided investigations in physical science

Perform simple measurements using non-standard units of measure to collect data

Organize and analyze data; Compare predictions

Organize (e.g., compare, classify, and sequence) objects, organisms, and events according to various characteristics

Compare objects according to their measurable characteristics (e.g., longer/shorter, lighter/heavier)

Communicate results of investigations

Communicate observations with pictographs, pictures, models, and/or words.

Communicate with other groups to describe the results of an investigation.

Classify objects and materials by their observable properties

Identify observable properties of objects using the senses

Classify materials as solids, gasses or liquids

Teaching Strategies

Hook: Read the book Water Dance by Thomas Locker (1)

Present each child with an ice cube

Students describe the ice cube and draw their observations

Ask students how long it would take for the ice cube to melt -What will happen when it does?

Ask students to brainstorm faster ways to melt the ice (5)

Present containers of hot water and cold water - ask whether they think the ice will melt faster in the warm water, the cold water, or on the plate (4)

Youngsters perform the experiment (6)

Are students surprised by the results? Invite students to revisit their predictions (7)

Now what? Now that the ice on the plate has melted, what will happen to the ice that's left? Students observe the water of the next days. When the water completely disappears explain they can no longer see the water on the plate because it is now in the air. (9)

Materials

Ice

Plate

Large beakers

Paper plates

Book: Water Dance

Student Performance

Students perform the experiment, sharing their results with a partner

Hands-on experience

Student Evaluation (8)

Evaluate students understanding by viewing their observation drawings

Evaluate students understanding through individual and whole class discussion

Lesson Evaluation

Was the lesson successful?

Did students stay engaged and on-task?

Did the activity fall into the allotted time frame?

Resources

Section 1

Nation at Risk" (1983). Retrieved 12/03/07

http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/recomm.html.

Instructional Design" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design

Instructional design." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. (2007) Wikimedia Foundation, Retrieved 12/03/2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Instructional_design&oldid=175572211.

Marzano and Associates. Resources and Links (2006) Retrieved 12/03/07

http://www.marzanoandassociates.com.

McNeil, S. "What is Instructional Design?" (2007) Retrieved 12/03/07

http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/whatisid.html.

Section 2

Clark, D. "Developing Instruction or Instructional Design" (2000). Retrieved 12/4/2007

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/development.html#Gagne.

Instructional Design - Gange's 9 Events of Instruction" (n.d.). Florida Community College, Jacksonville, Florida. Retrieved 12/3/07 at http://li.fccj.edu/9events.htm.

Section 3

Dempsey, J.V. Instruction Design and Development Electronic Workbook. (2006) University of South Alabama. http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/idbook/home.html.

McGriff, S.J. Instructional System Design (ISD): Using the ADDIE Model (2000). Penn State University. http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/s/j/sjm256/portfolio/kbase/IDD/ADDIE.pdf.

Section 4

Resources:

Kemp Design Model" (2007). Retrieved 12/03/07 at http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model.

Knirk and Gustafson design model" (2007). Retrieved 12/03/2007 from: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Knirk_and_Gustafson_design_model.

Mappin, D., Phan, R., Kelly, M. And Bratt S. "Module 4: An Overview of Instructional Systems Design" (1998). University of Alberta. Retrieved 12/03/2007 at http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edit573/modules/module4.htm.

Qureshi, E. "Instructional Design" (2004). Retrieved 12/04/2007 at http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/edfac/morton/instructional_design.htm.

Section 5

Moore, S. "Melting Away" the Mailbox Idea Magazine for Teachers (Dec./Jan. 2006/07), 36-37.